<p>Fort Clatsop was the encampment of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the Oregon Country near the mouth of the Columbia River during the winter of 1805-1806. Located along the Lewis and Clark River at the north end of the Clatsop Plains approximately 5 mi southwest of Astoria, the fort was the last encampment of the Corps of Discovery, before embarking on their return trip east to St. Louis.</p><br>
<p>The Lewis and Clark Expedition wintered at Fort Clatsop before returning east to St. Louis in the spring of 1806. It took just over 3 weeks for the Expedition to build the fort, and it served as their camp from December 8, 1805 until their departure on March 23, 1806.</p><br>
<p>The site is now protected as part of the Lewis and Clark National and State Historical Parks, and is formerly known as Fort Clatsop National Memorial. A replica of the fort was constructed for the sesquicentennial in 1955 and lasted for fifty years; it was severely damaged by fire in early October 2005, weeks before Fort Clatsop&#39;s bicentennial. A new replica, more rustic and rough-hewn, was built by about 700 volunteers in 2006; it opened with a dedication ceremony that took place on December 9.</p><br>
<p>The original Fort Clatsop decayed in the wet climate of the region but was reconstructed in 1955 from sketches in the journals of William Clark. The site is currently operated by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>In 1803, Thomas Jefferson completed the Louisiana Purchase from France. As much of the area had not been explored by whites, Jefferson commissioned an expedition to be led by his secretary, Meriwether Lewis, along with William Clark. Jefferson set a number of goals for the expedition, most notably to determine what the land contained, including plants, animals, and natural resources. Jefferson also wanted to establish good relations with the Native Americans of the area. Additionally, Jefferson was very interested in finding a water route to the Pacific Ocean, which would have cut the travel time from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean considerably.</p><br>
<h2>Locating and building the fort</h2><br>
<p>In late November 1805, after spending a number of days in what is today the state of Washington, Lewis and Clark proposed that the Corps of Discovery move to a location along the Columbia River, based on a recommendation of the local Clatsop Indians. The group decided to vote on the matter, with everyone, including the young Native American female Sacagawea and African American slave York, participating. The group was given three choices: stay on the Washington side of the Columbia River, and be subjected to boring diets of fish and rainy weather, move upriver, or take the advice of the Clatsop Indians and explore the area to the south of the River. The expedition decided to take the advice of the local Indians and overwhelmingly decided to explore the idea of spending the winter on the southern shore of the River.</p><br>
<p>Lewis decided to explore the area before moving the entire group. He and five men left to scout the area, leaving Clark and the rest of the group behind. Lewis became frustrated when he could not find the abundant elk that the Clatsop had talked about. In the meantime, Clark had not heard from his companion in a number of days and became increasingly worried. During Lewis&#39; absence, the group performed a number of housekeeping tasks, including fixing their clothes from the wear they had suffered during the long and arduous journey.</p><br>
<p>Finally, Lewis returned with the news that he had found an adequate location in which to winter. On December 7, 1805, the Corps of Discovery began the short journey to the location chosen by Lewis. Upon arrival, the men split into different groups: Clark led a party to the Pacific Ocean in search of salt, while Lewis split the remaining men into two groups. One group was in charge of hunting, while the other was in charge of cutting down trees to be used in the construction of the fort.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the fort was slow, due to the incessant precipitation and unyielding wind that made working conditions less than ideal. On December 23, people started to move into the dwelling, even though it didn&#39;t yet have a roof. The next day, Christmas Eve, everyone moved in. On Christmas Day it was named "Fort Clatsop" in reference to the local Indian tribe.</p><br>
<p>The structures of Fort Clatsop were relatively simple, consisting of two buildings surrounded by large walls. All of the men lived in one structure, while Lewis, Clark, Sacagawea, her husband Toussaint Charbonneau, and their son, Jean Baptiste, stayed in the other.</p><br>
<h2>Winter activities</h2><br>
<p>The winter of 1805–1806 was very long and rainy, leading to boredom and restlessness for the Corps of Discovery. They passed the time with various activities, including hunting the abundant deer and elk in the region. The deer and elk meat spoiled quickly, but the skins were used to make clothing and moccasins. Realizing the importance of their trip, Lewis spent most of his time at Fort Clatsop documenting the journey, taking notes on the wildlife, terrain, and other features. Lewis also made maps of the area, which would be especially helpful to future settlers of the Pacific Northwest. Finally, Lewis and Clark occasionally traded with the Clatsop Indians, a tribe they had come to dislike, viewing them as untrustworthy and prone to theft.</p><br>
<p>Ultimately, the group&#39;s time along the Columbia River merely served as a place to spend the winter and recoup. The men were suffering from a number of different illnesses and conditions, including venereal diseases and respiratory problems, and felt that departing would make them all feel better.</p><br>
<h2>Departure</h2><br>
<p>Toward the end of the monotonous winter they spent at Fort Clatsop, the men were desperate to return east. Everyone was sick and quite restless, and the steady diet of elk was becoming unbearable. Moreover, even the elk were becoming more difficult to find. Originally, Meriwether Lewis determined the departure date would be April 1, but it was later moved up to March 20. Ultimately, they didn&#39;t leave until two days after that due to poor weather.</p><br>
<p>In order to travel back up the Columbia and reach the mountains, the group was desperately in need of canoes. The Clatsops had a number of them, but refused to trade with Lewis and Clark. Eventually, an agreement was reached for one canoe, but Lewis decided they had no choice but to steal a second one, since they couldn&#39;t all travel without at least two boats.</p><br>
<p>On March 22, the Corps of Discovery began the long journey back to St. Louis. Lewis decided not to send any of the men back with a copy of his notes by sea, as was usually customary, because of the small number of people in the group. Instead, Lewis decided that the group would travel two different routes, in order to see as much of the territory as possible on the way back to St. Louis.</p><br>
<h2>Later use</h2><br>
<p>As a parting gift, Lewis gave Fort Clatsop to Coboway, the chief of the Clatsops. Lewis and Clark had no use for the fort, as they were returning east with no plans to revisit the fort in the near future. Because of the heavy rainfall of the region, the original Fort Clatsop had rotted away by the middle of the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The Clatsops used the fort as a useful base for security and other purposes, though they did strip away part of the wood for other uses. The area soon became a very important site for the fur trade in the Pacific Northwest. The location of the fort near the Pacific Ocean and the Columbia River made it a natural site for the fur trade, which expanded rapidly in the years after Lewis and Clark left. Numerous fur trading companies, including the American Fur Company and the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company, constructed headquarters in the region. The region quickly became a very important part of the fur trade.</p><br>
<p>Since then, there have been two reconstruction efforts. The first, in 1955, lasted for 50 years until a fire destroyed the entire structure in the late evening of October 3, 2005. Federal, state, and community officials immediately pledged to rebuild it. A 9-1-1 operators insistence that the fire was no more than fog over the nearby Lewis and Clark River delayed firefighters’ arrival by about 15 minutes, possibly impacting their ability to save part of the structure. Investigators found no evidence of arson. The fire started in one of the enlisted mens quarters, where earlier in the day there had been an open hearth fire burning. It took 18 months to build the 1955 reconstruction, much longer than the 3.5 weeks it took to build the original. Shortly after the fire, a second replica was built and finished in 2006. In spite of the loss, the fire renewed archaeological interest in the site, as excavations had not been possible while the replica was standing. Additionally, the new replica was built utilizing information on the original fort that was not available for the 1955 replica. The 2006 replica also features a fire detection system.</p><br>
<p>The replica of the fort isn&#39;t in the exact location of the original, as no remains of the original fort have been found. However, it is thought to be quite close to the exact location.</p><br>
<p>The Bani River is the principal tributary of the Niger River in Mali. The river is formed from the confluence of the Baoulé and Bagoé rivers some 160 km east of Bamako and it merges with the Niger near Mopti. Its length is about 1,100 km.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Bani River has three main tributaries: the Baoulé that rises near Odienné in Côte dIvoire and passes just south of Bougouni, the Bagoé River that rises near Boundiali in Côte dIvoire and the Banifing-Lotio that drains the region around Sikasso. The drainage basin upstream of Douna has an area of 102,000 km&sup2, 85% of which lies in southern Mali and 15% in northern Côte d&#39;Ivoire.</p><br>
<p>The annual rainfall varies across the catchment basin with the southern area in Côte d&#39;Ivoire receiving 1,500 mm a year while the northern area around Douna receiving only 700 mm. For the period 1965-1995 the average annual rainfall for the basin was 1,100 mm. The rainfall is seasonal with most of the rain falling between May and October. The maximum rainfall occurs in August.</p><br>
<p>The discharge of the Bani River is also highly seasonal, with the maximum flow occurring at the end of September and very little flow between</p><br>
<p>February and June. The river enters the Inland Niger Delta north of San and after the annual rains the river floods (the French word crue is sometimes used) and covers the floodplain.</p><br>
<p>There is a significant inter-annual variation in the rainfall and, as a consequence, in the quantity of water flowing in the river. The drought that started at the beginning of the 1970s lead to a very large reduction in the flow and up to the present time the volumes are still much lower than those observed in the 1950s and 1960s. The reduction in the flow of the river was much greater than the reduction in the rainfall. The average rainfall for 1981-1989 was 20% less than for 1961-1970 while the discharge of the river was reduced by 75%. The effect of the reduced rainfall was less extreme for other tributaries of the Niger. Over the same period the catchment basin of the Upper Niger suffered a similar 20% reduction in rainfall but the readings at the Koulikoro gauge station were only reduced to 50% of the earlier values. Because of the accumulated groundwater deficit, even in a year with high rainfall, the discharge of the Bani River is less than in the wet decades of the 1950s and 1960s.</p><br>
<h2>Talo Dam</h2><br>
<p>In 2006 the Talo Dam was constructed to irrigate parts of the floodplain to the south of the river near the town of San. Prior to the construction of the dam, these areas were only fully flooded in very wet years, the most recent of which occurred in 1967. The dam is located 43 km west of San, 66 km downstream of Douna and 110 km upstream of Djenné. The dam acts as a weir in that water can flow over the top of the retaining wall. The construction of the dam was highly controversial. The environmental impact assessment commissioned by the African Development Bank was criticised for not fully taking into account the hydrological impact downstream of the dam.</p><br>
<p>The retaining wall is 5 m high and 295 m in length, creating a reservoir with a capacity to retain 0.18 km3 of water. This volume represents 1.3% of the average annual discharge of the river (over the period 1952-2002 the average discharge was 13.4 km3. A downstream flow of 10 m&sup3;/s can be maintained during the dry season by opening a sluice gate. From the published information it is unclear how much of the total discharge will be diverted for irrigation and, of the diverted water, how much will drain back into the river. The downstream effect of the dam will be to delay the arrival of the annual flood and to reduce its intensity.</p><br>
<h2>Djenné Dam</h2><br>
<p>In May 2009 the African Development Bank approved funding for an irrigation dam/weir to be built on the Bani near Soala, a village situated 12 km south of Djenné. The dam is one element in a 6-year 66 million USD program that also includes the building of a dam on the Sankarani River near Kourouba and the extension of the area irrigated by the Talo dam. The proposed Djenné dam will retain 0.3 km3 of water, significantly more than the Talo dam. It will allow the "controlled flooding" of 14,000 ha of the Pondori floodplain (on the left bank of the river to the south of Djenné) to allow the cultivation of rice and the irrigation of an additional 5000 ha for growing floating grass (Echinochloa stagnina know locally as bourgou) for animal feed.</p><br>
<p>The effects of the dams on the flooding of the Inland Niger Delta downstream of Mopti are expected to be modest, as the discharge of the Bani is only one third of that of the Niger: for the period 1952-2002 the average flow at Douna was 424 m&sup3;/s compared with 1,280 m&sup3;/s for the Niger at Koulikoro.</p><br>
<p>Devenish or Devinish is an island in Lower Lough Erne, County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. Aligned roughly north–south, it is about one and a quarter miles long and two-thirds of a mile wide. The main place to catch a ferry to the island is at Trory Point, just outside Enniskillen.</p><br>
<p>Devenish Island is owned by the Kilravock Christian Trust.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>Devenish contains one of the finest monastic sites in Northern Ireland. A round tower thought to date from the twelfth century is situated on the island, as are the walls of the Oratory of Saint Molaise who established the monastery in the 6th century, on a pilgrim route to Croagh Patrick in County Mayo. It became a centre of scholarship and although raided by Vikings in 837 and burned in 1157, it later flourished as the site of the parish church and St Mary&#39;s Augustinian Priory.</p><br>
<p>There are extensive low earthworks on the hillside, but the earliest buildings are St Molaise&#39;s House (a very small church) and the fine round tower close by, both with accomplished Romanesque decoration of the 12th century. The round tower is some 30 metres (100 ft) tall and can be climbed using internal ladders. It features a sculptured Romanesque cornice of heads and ornament under the conical stone roof.</p><br>
<p>The smallest of the three churches (Mo-Laisse&#39;s House, named after the founder of the monastery) dates from the late 12th or early 13th century. It has narrow antae with bases carved with classical motifs. Only the lower parts of the walls and some of the roofstones survive.</p><br>
<p>Teampull Mór, the lower church, dates from the early 13th century with a beautifully moulded south window. It was extended to the east in about 1300, and later additions include a residential wing to the north and the Maguire Chapel to the south, with 17th-century heraldic slabs.</p><br>
<p>On the hilltop sits St Mary&#39;s Augustinian Priory which is of the mid-15th century and early 16th century, with church, tower and small north cloister. The priory has an intricately carved mid-15th-century high cross in its graveyard.</p><br>
<p>There are several hundred loose architectural fragments on the site and among them are over 40 stones from an otherwise lost, richly-decorated Romanesque church. Some of the many loose stones are displayed and set in their historical context in the small visitor centre.</p><br>
<p>The monastic remains including churches, round tower etc. are State Care Historic Monuments in the townland of Devenish, in Fermanagh District Council area, at grid ref: area of H224 469. The monastic site (area surrounding the state care monument, grid ref: H224 469) and the rath (grid ref: H2215 4768) are Scheduled Historic Monuments.</p><br>
<p>The Calapooya Mountains are a mountain range in Lane and Douglas counties of southwestern Oregon in the United States. The range runs for approximately 60 mi west from the Cascade Range between Eugene on the north and Roseburg on the south.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Calapooya Mountains are composed of volcanic rocks and newer sedimentary strata. The mountains have been deeply eroded by the Coast Fork Willamette River and its tributaries. In the southern drainage, the tributaries of the North Umpqua River have cut into the southern slopes. The soil is silty, clay loam formed from sandstone, sediment, and igneous rocks.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The Calapooya Mountains and the Calapooya Divide are two parts of a spur of the Western Cascade mountains in the USA state of Oregon that form the divide between the watersheds of the Willamette and Umpqua rivers. At its southeastern end, the spur joins the Cascade Range near Cowhorn Mountain near the headwaters of the Middle Fork Willamette River and the North Umpqua River. A topographic map in the Atlas of Oregon shows the Calapooya Mountains curving northwest from near Potter, McGowan, and Balm mountains past Bohemia Mountain to Holland Point, south of Oakridge. From near Bohemia Mountain, a block of mountains connected to the Calapooya Mountains runs due west along the border between Lane and Douglas counties to the vicinity of Interstate 5 (I-5) near Rice Hill. This block is known as the Calapooya Divide. To the north along I-5 are Cottage Grove and Eugene and to the south are Sutherlin and Roseburg.</p><br>
<p>Streams flowing south from the Calapooyas into the North Umpqua River include Steamboat, Canton, and Rock creeks, while Calapooya Creek flows west from the divide into the Umpqua main stem. Streams flowing north or east into the Middle Fork Willamette River include Tumblebug, Staley, Coal, and Packard creeks. Flowing northwest or west into the Coast Fork Willamette River or its major tributary, the Row River, are Brice, Layng, and Mosby creeks and Big River. The Umpqua flows west through the Oregon Coast Range to the Pacific Ocean at Reedsport, while the Willamette flows north to the Columbia River, which flows northwest to the Pacific Ocean at Astoria.</p><br>
<p>The highest peaks in the range include Balm Mountain at 6,165 ft above sea level, Potter Mountain at 6,145 ft, and McGowan Mountain at 6,130 ft, all near the southeastern end of the range. Along the divide, Huckleberry Mountain in the east rises to 4,754 ft, while Ben More Mountain near I-5 is only 2,480 ft high. Bohemia Mountain and its close neighbor Fairview Peak reach identical peak elevations of 5,933 ft, while Holland Point near Oakridge is 5,048 ft high.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate in the Calapooya Mountains follows a pattern of wet winters and dry summers. Precipitation generally increases with elevation, ranging from an average of 40 to 50 in per year in the valleys to 70 to 80 in on the mountain peaks. Above 4,000 ft, a significant part of this falls as snow.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Throughout the history of the region, the range has provided a geographic and cultural barrier between the Willamette Valley and the South Umpqua Valley, effectively separating Western Oregon from Southern Oregon. In the 19th century, it separated the tribal domains of the Kalapuya and Umpqua tribes of Native Americans. Both ceded their lands to the USA government in the 1854 Treaty with the Umpqua and Kalapuya. During the 1840s, the mountains proved a barrier to white settlers seeking to move into southern Oregon or to move southward to the California gold fields. The Applegate Trail, blazed in the late 1840s, provided the first reliable path for white settlement through the western end of the mountains. Interstate 5 essentially follows the route of the trail between Eugene and Roseburg.</p><br>
<p>The mountains have been an important timber source in the 20th century. The eastern end of the mountains are largely within the Umpqua National Forest in the south and Willamette National Forest in the north.</p><br>
<p>&#39;s Jūō-zu . The good can cross the river by a bridge while the evil are cast into the dragon-infested rapids.</p><br>
<p>The Sanzu River, or River of Three Crossings, is a Japanese Buddhist tradition and religious belief similar to the Greek concept of the River Styx. It is believed that the dead must cross the river on the way to the afterlife, a belief reflected in Japanese funerals when six coins are placed in the casket with the dead.</p><br>
<p>The Sanzu River is popularly believed to be located in Mount Osore, a suitably desolate and remote part of Aomori Prefecture in northern Japan.</p><br>
<h2>Real Sanzu Rivers in Japan</h2><br>
<p>*in Kanra, Kanra, Gunma (confluence with Shirakura River)</p><br>
<p>*in Chōnan, Chōsei, Chiba (confluence with Ichinomiya River)</p><br>
<p>*in Zaō, Katta, Miyagi (confluence with Nigori River)</p><br>
<p>*in Mutsu, Aomori (drains from Usori Lake)</p><br>
<p>Walker Pass  is a mountain pass by Lake Isabella in the southern Sierra Nevada. It is located in northeastern Kern County, approximately 53 mi  ENE of Bakersfield and 10 mi  WNW of Ridgecrest. The pass provides a route between the Kern River Valley and San Joaquin Valley on the west, and the Mojave Desert on the east.</p><br>
<p>Walker Pass is a National Historic Landmark, and is under the stewardship of the Bureau of Land Management.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Walker Pass was charted as a route through the Sierra in 1834 by Joseph Reddeford Walker and Garland Guthary, members of the Bonneville Expedition who learned of it from Native Americans. Walker returned through the pass in 1843, leading an immigrant wagon train into California. In 1845 the military surveying expedition of John C. Fremont used the pass. He suggested it be named after Walker.</p><br>
<p>The Walker Pass Lodge was built nearby in the 1930s and was a well-known rest stop before burning down around 1990.</p><br>
<p>Aside from the paved road, the pass is essentially unaltered since Walker mapped it in 1834.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>It is the highest point on State Route 178. The pass is also the southernmost crossing along the Sierra Crest, with more southerly Tehachapi Pass traditionally marking the geographic divide between the Sierra Nevada and Tehachapi Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Between Walker Pass and Tioga Pass, several hours drive to the north, there is only one paved road for automobiles to cross over the Sierra Nevada. It runs from the northern end of Indian Wells Valley at the east, to the hydrologic pass between the Great Basin and the Pacific Ocean at the top of the Nine-Mile Canyon road, then west along the Sherman Pass Road.</p><br>
<p>All roads between Walker Pass and Carson Pass (State Route 88), over 200 mi in distance, are subject to extended closure by winter snowfall. Walker Pass is sometimes closed due to snowfall, but due to its lower elevation these closures are for brief periods. However, most east-west traffic in the region utilizes the four lane State Route 58 through Tehachapi Pass, located about one hour&#39;s drive to the south.</p><br>
<p>The Pacific Crest Trail crosses at Walker Pass, and northbound thru-hikers can look forward to the longest roadless stretch of the entire trail. A campsite situated about 0.6 miles (1 kilometer) northwest of the road pass is a popular stop for hikers and astronomers alike.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral of Learning, a Pittsburgh landmark is the centerpiece of the University of Pittsburgh&#39;s main campus in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Standing at 535 ft, the 42-story Late Gothic Revival Cathedral is the tallest educational building in the Western hemisphere and the second tallest university building  in the world. It is also the second tallest gothic-styled building in the world. The Cathedral of Learning was commissioned in 1921 and ground was broken in 1926. The first class was held in the building in 1931 and its exterior finished in October 1934, prior to its formal dedication in June 1937.</p><br>
<p>Colloquially referred to as "Cathy" by some Pitt students, the Cathedral of Learning is a steel frame structure overlaid with Indiana limestone and contains more than 2,000 rooms and windows. It functions as a primary classroom and administrative center of the university, and is, home to the Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences and many of its departments, as well as the University Honors College. It houses many specialty spaces, including a studio theater, food court, study lounges, offices, computer and language labs, 30 Nationality Rooms, and a 1/2 acre, 4-story-high, vaulted, gothic study and event hall. The building contains noted examples of stained glass, stone, wood, and iron work and is often used by the university in photographs, postcards, and other advertisements.</p><br>
<h2>Use</h2><br>
<p>The basement and floors up to (and including) floor 40 are used for educational purposes, although most floors above 36 house the buildings mechanical equipment. These floors include theaters, computer laboratories, language laboratories, classrooms, and departmental offices. The basement contains a black box theater and the ground floor contains computer labs, language labs, classrooms, and the Cathedral Café food court. The "lobby", comprising the first through third floors, contains a massive gothic "Commons Room" that is used as a general study area and for special events and is ringed by three floors of classrooms, including, on the first and third floors, the 30 Nationality Rooms designed by members of Pittsburghs ethnic communities in the styles of different nations and ethnic groups. Twenty-eight of these serve as functional classrooms while more conventional classrooms are located on the second floor and elsewhere throughout the building. The first floor also serves as the home to the offices of the Chancellor, Executive Vice Chancellor, and other administration offices, as well as the Nationality Rooms Gift Shop. The fourth floor, which was previously home to the main stacks of the university&#39;s library and the McCarl Center for Nontraditional Student Success, now houses a mix of interdisciplinary studies programs. The fifth floor originally housed the main borrowing, reference, and reading rooms of the university library, and now houses the Department of English. The Pitt Humanities Center is housed on the sixth floor. Additionally, the University Honors College is located on the 35th and 36th floors.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral of Learning houses the Department of Philosophy, considered one of the top five in the United States, and the Department of History and Philosophy of Science, consistently ranked at the top of the field. Other departments in the Cathedral include English, Religious Studies, Statistics, Theatre Arts, and the School of Social Work which maintains the highest classrooms in the building located on the 23rd floor. Floors 37&ndash;40 are closed to the general public, as they contain electrical wiring for the building, as well as the Babcock Room, a large conference room on the 40th floor used for meetings, seminars, and special events and which provides a panoramic view of downtown Pittsburgh and the rest of the university. The 40th floor balcony also houses a nesting pair of Peregrine falcons. A view from the top is available via a webcam. Golden lights, dubbed "victory lights," surround the outside of the highest floors and are lit following Pitt football wins and other notable victories, giving the upper part of the Cathedral an amber glow.</p><br>
<p>The top of the building serves as the site for the transmitter of the student-run radio station WPTS-FM as well as the amateur radio repeater W3YJ which is run by the Panther Amateur Radio club on a frequency of 443.45 MHz.</p><br>
<p>The building is also one of the host buildings of Pennsylvania&#39;s Mock Trial Competition.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1921, John Gabbert Bowman became the tenth chancellor of the university. At that time, the school consisted of a series of buildings constructed along Henry Hornbostel&#39;s plan for the campus and included "temporary" wooden structures built during World War I. He then began to envision a "tall building", that would be later termed the Cathedral of Learning, to provide a dramatic symbol of education for the city and alleviate overcrowding by adding much needed space in order to meet present and future needs of the university.</p><br>
<p>His reasoning is summarized in this quote:</p><br>
<p>Bowman looked at a 14 acre plot of land named Frick Acres. On November 26, 1921, with aid from the Mellon family, the university was given the $2.5 million plot, and began plans for a proper university building on the site.</p><br>
<p>One of the foremost Gothic architects of the time, Philadelphian Charles Klauder, was hired to design the tower. The design took two years to finish, with the final plan attempting to fuse the idea of a modern skyscraper with the tradition and ideals of Gothic architecture. The plans received strong resistance from the community and from some university officials, who felt it was too tall for the city.</p><br>
<p>Local legend states that to counteract this resistance, Bowman ordered that the construction of the walls would start at the top floor and work its way down, so the project could not be canceled. This has been traced to an account in November 21, 1943, issue of At Ease, a tabloid related to local military personnel on campus, which stated that "the masonry was started from the top downward." Construction photographs show that this was not the case, and that some stonework was done on the first floor before any other stonework was begun. One engineer with the company working on the Cathedral explained that the exterior walls of the Cathedral are not load-bearing. Because of this, many similar buildings would start construction at the third or fourth floors. Practically, this makes sense, as it allows easy movement of building materials and equipment into and out of the building. Instead, in the Cathedral&#39;s case, the issue was one of the stone that would be used in lower stories. In fact, the quarry was not prepared to deliver the stone on schedule, so construction was delayed, and work began on the higher stories.</p><br>
<p>When construction started on the Cathedral of Learning in 1926, it was the tallest building in Pittsburgh, although the Gulf Tower (1932) was completed and surpassed it by the time the Cathedral of Learning was officially dedicated in June 1937. Today, it remains the tallest educational building in the Western hemisphere, the second tallest university building in the world behind the 36 story, 240 m (including a 57 m spire) Moscow State University main building completed in 1953, and Spiral Towers (170 m), both completed in 2008 and located in Japan.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>On July 26, 1940, as World War II was starting, a bomb threat was made against the structure with extra guards being posted to secure it and the authorities not ruling out possible wartime sabotage.</p><br>
<p>During the war effort, the Cathedral was assigned to house, feed and instruct roughly 1,000 of the Army Air Corps (forerunner of today&#39;s USA Air Force) as well as dozens of Army engineers. The building had at least 12 floors dedicated for military use from 1943 until 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Funding</h2><br>
<p>Fundraising for this project came in many forms, including donations from industries, corporations, individuals and foreign governments. To raise public views of the Cathedral, and at the same time finance the construction, Bowman started a fundraising campaign in 1925.</p><br>
<p>An important part of this campaign was a project reaching out to the children of the city entitled "Buy a Brick for Pitt". Each schoolchild sent a dime ($0.10) and a letter to the university, explaining how they earned the dime for the building. In exchange, the child received a certificate for one brick contained in the Cathedral. A total of 97,000 certificates were issued to children.</p><br>
<h2>Commons Room</h2><br>
<p>The main part of the Cathedral&#39;s first floor is the Commons Room, called one of the "great architectural fantasies of the twentieth century", is a fifteenth-century English perpendicular Gothic-style hall that covers half an acre (2,000 m) and extends upwards four stories, reaching 52 ft tall. The room was a gift of Andrew Mellon. It is a piece of true Gothic architecture; no steel supports were used in the construction of its arches. Each arch is a true arch, and they support their own weight. Each base for the arches weighs five tons, and it is said that they are so firmly placed that each could hold a large truck. The large central piers act only as screens for the structural steel that holds up the upper floors of the building.</p><br>
<p>Despite its heavy use, the Commons Room is kept quiet by the use of Guastavino acoustical tiles as the stones between the ribs of vaulting. This feature was insisted upon by Chancellor Bowman. The architect, Klauder, objected due to the increased costs of this construction method. Bowman responded with the comment: "You cannot build a great University with fraud in it."</p><br>
<p>Joseph Gattoni designed the stonework, much of which depicts western Pennsylvanian plant life. The walls are made of Indiana limestone and the floor is green Vermont slate.</p><br>
<p>The wrought iron in the room, including the large gates leading to the elevators, was a gift from George Hubbard Clapp and were designed by the ironworker Samuel Yellin. Over the gates are two lines from an untitled poem by Robert Bridges:</p><br>
<p>"Here is eternal spring; for you the very stars of heaven are new."</p><br>
<p>Also located in the corridors surrounding the Commons Room are plaques featuring calligraphy designed and hand-cut in slate by Edward Catich, including one featuring a poem by Lawrence Lee titled "The Cathedral," as well as stained glass windows by Charles Connick.</p><br>
<p>During finals in the winter, fires in the enormous fireplace are lit, to promote a comforting and pleasant atmosphere for the dozens of students typically found studying into the late hours.</p><br>
<h2>Nationality Rooms</h2><br>
<p>The Cathedral is home to 30 Nationality Rooms located on the first and third floors: 28 working classrooms and two rooms used mostly for display or occasional special events. Each nationality room is designed to celebrate a different culture that had an influence on Pittsburghs growth, depicting an era prior to (or in the singular case of the French Classroom, just after) 1787, which is year of the universitys founding and the signing of the US Constitution.</p><br>
<p>The Nationality Room programs began in 1926 when Bowman decided that he wanted to involve the community as much as he could in constructing the Cathedral, so he proposed that each nationality that had a significant number of people in Pittsburgh would be allowed to design their nationality&#39;s room for the Cathedral. Each group had to form a Room Committee, which would be responsible for all fundraising, designing, and acquisition. The university provided only the room and, upon completion, upkeep for perpetuity. All other materials, labor, and design were provided by the individual committees. These were sometimes aided by foreign governments and the rooms contain many authentic artifacts and materials from the country represented. A typical room on the 1st floor (those built between 1938 and the 1957) took between three and ten years to complete, and cost the equivalent of US$300,000 in 2006 dollars. More recent rooms have cost in the range of $750,000 and up.</p><br>
<h3>Classrooms</h3><br>
<h3>Proposed rooms</h3><br>
<p>There are seven nationality rooms in various stages of planning to add to the current 30.</p><br>
<h2>Other notable spaces</h2><br>
<p>There are several other notable facilities and rooms within the Cathedral of Learning. In addition, these spaces do not fall under the auspices of the Nationality Rooms program.</p><br>
<h3>Babcock Room</h3><br>
<p>The Edward V. Babcock Memorial Room is a plush, carpeted, wood-paneled conference room constructed on the 40th floor for use as the University trustees boardroom. Funded by a Babcock family grant of $327,000 ($ in dollars) and dedicated in November 1958, The rooms square shape is modified by four alcoves, in one of which is a portrait of Babcock by Malcolm Stevens Parcell. The walls, featuring intricate geometric patterns, are paneled in Appalachian white oak with burled walnut inlays and touches of rosewood. The windows, adorned by leaf-patterned curtains, boast a spectacular panoramic view of the surrounding area. The room is also adjoined by a kitchen. Access to the room is limited to a spiral staircase and an elevator, both requiring a key, that originate on the 36th floor. During the early 1970s at the height of student activism, a group of protesting students attempted to barricade the room during a trustees meeting. Today, the trustees have outgrown the room and generally meet in the Assembly Room of the William Pitt Union. The Babcock room now serves as a seminar and meeting room and is also used for special events. A pair of peregrine falcons nests on the balcony outside the room.</p><br>
<h3>Braun Room</h3><br>
<p>Following the opening of the Cathedral of Learning, the offices of the Dean of Women moved to the 12th floor of the Cathedral in 1938. The interior was unfinished but Dean Thyrsa Amos envisioned a dignified and beautiful space for women to meet.</p><br>
<p>When Dean Amos died in 1941, the new quarters were still unfinished. The Alumnae Association created the Thyrsa W. Amos Fund to plaster the walls and to furnish Room 1217 in her name. Room 1217 was never finished, but after World War II the other rooms on the twelfth floor were completed including room 1201, now known as the Braun Room. Mrs. A. E. Braun donated the furnishings and floral carved mahogany wood paneling which she had purchased in 1941 from the library of the home of Grant McCargo in the East End of Pittsburgh. The Braun Room was dedicated in 1946 and serves, along with its furniture, as an example of a modern reproduction of Louis XV design. Original blue carpeting was replaced in 1955 with a Persian rug, named "The Iron Rug of Persia", that was donated by the daughter and son-in-law of A. E. Braun. Restored in 2015, the rug was made for a regional Khan in the northern part of Iran around 1810. Other features of the room include a low bookcase, bordered and topped with classic carving, that was crafted by university carpenters to replace the original fireplace whose inclusion was impractical on the 12th floor, along with two crystal drop chandeliers.</p><br>
<p>Dean Helen Pool Rush and her successor, Dean Savina Skewis, carried on the traditions of Dean Amos until the Dean of Women&#39;s Office was closed in 1969, and its functions and quarters were assumed by other departments. The Braun Room is used for meetings and study abroad scholarship selection panels.</p><br>
<h3>Croghan-Schenley Ballroom</h3><br>
<p>The Croghan-Schenley room, situated on the first floor of the Cathedral in room 156, is actually two adjoining Greek Revival rooms, the Ballroom and the Oval Room, connected by a hidden passageway in the Ballrooms fireplace. The rooms were originally part of William Croghan Jr.s mansion, known as the Picnic House, built in 1830 in the Stanton Heights area of Pittsburgh. The rooms themselves were created in 1835 by the Philadelphia carver Mordecai Van Horn, and they have been regarded as being among the most lavish examples of Greek Revival designs in America.</p><br>
<p>His daughter, Mary Elizabeth, went to boarding school in New York, but in 1842 at the age of fifteen she eloped with 43-year-old Edward Wyndham Harrington Schenley, a captain in the British military. The elopement caused a family schism. Mary would not visit often, and in an effort to convince her to move back to Pittsburgh, the new rooms were commissioned. Following the death of William Croghan in 1850, the mansion was run by caretakers with no permanent residents for some 60 years. William S. Miller, then president of Steelwood Corp., purchased the Croghan mansion following World War II and it was soon leveled for a new housing development, but the Croghan-Schenley rooms were spared.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, the rooms, donated by Miller, were dismantled and rebuilt in the Cathedral, except that the original ceilings had to be lowered about 8 inches to accommodate the available space.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, the rooms were refurbished to their 19th century glory. Highlighting the ballroom are the hand-cut glass chandelier and four wooden, hand-carved Greek columns, surviving examples of western Pennsylvania’s Greek classical revival period popular with those of means in the 1830s.</p><br>
<p>The Croghan-Schenley rooms are the last extant vestiges of the estate of Mary Schenley, who before she died gave much of her holdings and property to the city of Pittsburgh—including Schenley farms, where the Cathedral sits, and Schenley Park.</p><br>
<p>Stories tell of a ghost, speculated to be that of Mary Schenley, that is said to roam the Ballroom and Nationality Rooms. The doors to the rooms are locked every night, but furniture is sometimes said to be found rearranged by daylight staff. The swinging of the chandelier has been said to indicate her presence.</p><br>
<h3>Frick Auditorium</h3><br>
<p>The Frick Auditorium is a lecture hall in room 324 of the Cathedral of Learning. Originally conceptualized as the Fine Arts Lecture Room intended to complement the Fine Arts Department then located on the seventh floor, the room was completed in 1939 and features stone mullions, chambranle, and other trim as well as wooden lecture seating and a coffered ceiling. A centerpiece element in the room is a Nicholas Lochoff reproduction of The Resurrection by Piero della Francesca that was purchased for the lecture hall by Helen Clay Frick. Frick would later donate a large collection of Lochoff reproductions to the university which are on display in the Nicholas Lochoff Cloisture in the university&#39;s Frick Fine Arts Building.</p><br>
<h3>Humanities Center</h3><br>
<p>The University of Pittsburghs Humanities Center, part of School of Arts and Sciences, is housed in room 602 of the Cathedral of Learning which was a sixth-floor space formerly occupied by the Darlington Memorial Library. Following digitization and protective storage of the librarys materials, its space was renovated by architect Rob Pfaffmann in 2009 in order to house the center which now includes office space for staff and visiting fellows. The Humanities Center space retains much of the original character and many of the antique furnishings originally bequeathed to the university by the Darlington family, and features moldings and green walls that are duplicated from the 18th mansion Graeme Park, a Pennsylvania colonial-era governor’s residence. The Center for Humanities was finished in time for an open house that was part a conference hosted by the center on November 14–15, 2009.</p><br>
<p>The space served as the home of The Darlington Memorial Library from 1936 until its recent conversion to the Humanities Center. The library was entered through a memorial vestibule and consisted of a central room with eight alcoves and contained, among other notable furnishings, a wrought iron entrance gate by Samuel Yellin. The library had been given to the University of Pittsburgh by the daughters of William McCullough Darlington and Mary Carson Darlington. The initial gift of eleven thousand volumes was made in 1918 by Mary OHara Darlington and Edith Darlington Ammon. This was followed by Mary OHara Darlingtons bequest in 1925 of the remainder of the familys library and a large part of the family estate. The Darlington familys tremendous interest in historical research was the force behind the creation of what was said to be the largest private library west of the Alleghenies. The library collection is particularly rich in material pertaining to the French and Indian War and to the history of Western Pennsylvania and the Ohio Valley as both William and Mary Darlington researched and published in these areas. While the main focus of the collection is American history and literature, other highlights of the collection include rare maps and atlases, works on ornithology and natural history, and early travel narratives. The Darlingtons son, O&#39;Hara Darlington, also amassed a collections of Victorian literature, sporting books and works of illustrators and caricaturists. The collection has been additionally enriched over the years by the donations of other individuals and organizations, particularly enhancing its content on the history of the Western Pennsylvania region. Prior to the renovation of the original library space, these materials were digitized and placed on-line at The Darlington Digital Library. The original, sometimes fragile, materials of the library were placed in storage for availability to researchers upon request. A virtual tour of the Darlington Memorial Library as it existed previously in the Cathedral of Learning is available for the main entrance and the main room.</p><br>
<h3>Cultural Studies, Film Studies, and GSWS program space</h3><br>
<p>Located on the fourth floor of the Cathedral of Learning, the current home of both the Cultural Studies, Film Studies, and Gender, Sexuality, & Womens Studies (GSWS) programs, was the prior home of the McCarl Center for Nontraditional Student Success until it moved to Wesley W. Posvar Hall in 2014. The space occupies what once housed two levels of the main stacks of the Universitys library. The 2,500 ft&sup2; space was previously opened as the $537,000 McCarl Center in 2002. Made possible by a gift from F. James and Foster J.J. McCarl, it was designed by Alan J. Cuteri and his architectural firm Strada, LLC, and includes wood finishes, double-height spaces with high ceilings and windows, a main corridor conceived as an interior street, and many elements that refer to the Cathedral of Learning&#39;s Gothic architecture including decorative painted metal columns with contemporary buttress-style arches. Today the space includes a resource library, offices, and seminar room, and class room that are used by the Cultural Studies and GSWS programs. Students in gender studies classes have access to the gender studies library, which houses classic and recent books on gender/sexuality, and to two gender studies classrooms. The GSWS faculty offices are also nearby. Also hanging in a hallway on the fourth floor outside the space, three unsigned and undated 7 by glass-encased murals that depict Renaissance painting styles and which have long belonged to the University but are of unknown origin.</p><br>
<h3>Mulert Memorial Room</h3><br>
<p>Located in room 204, the walnut-paneled Mulert Memorial classroom was designed by Philadelphia architect Gustav Ketterer and university architect Albert Klimcheck. The room features wood floors, fluted ionic columns, red velvet draperies, and student chairs with leather seats. The rooms doors have fluted jams and panelings of Greek rosettes. A Mulert family coat-of-arms and memorial inscription is located on the rear wall of the room. The room was provided for in the will of the late Mt. Lebanon resident Justus Mulert, the room was dedicated on December 21, 1942, and serves as a memorial to Mulerts wife, Louise and his son Ferdinand Max, who died in 1912 during his senior year at Washington and Jefferson College.</p><br>
<h3>Rauh Studio Theatre</h3><br>
<p>The Richard E. Raugh Studio Theatre, a facility utilized by the Department of Theatre Arts, is located in the basement of the Cathedral. The Raugh Studio Theatre is a black box space that can be configured for almost any set requirements. It is home to student-directed laboratory productions, play readings, Dark Night Cabaret, and played host to Pittsburghs longest-running theatre show, Friday Nite Improvs, started in 1989 by graduate theatre students. In 2017 the Studio Theatre was named in honor of Pitt alumnus Richard E. Raugh who donated $1 million to support it and the universitys theater productions.</p><br>
<h3>University Honors College</h3><br>
<p>The University Honors College, dedicated in 1986, is housed in a 2002-2003 renovated space on the 35th and 36th floors of the Cathedral. The Honors College provides support and enriched opportunities for scholarship among the university&#39;s undergraduates and offers a Bachelor of Philosophy (BPhil) degree.</p><br>
<p>The 2002-2003 renovation, by Rothschild Doyno Collaborative of Pittsburgh&#39;s Strip District, showcased an existing two-story arched window that is visible at night for miles around. The four-leaf medieval quatrefoil medallion at the top of the Cathedral is a central motif in the design of the Honors College. Stained glass behind the reception desk at the center of the space was designed by Glenn Greene Glass of Regent Square and centers on a design representing the four seasons, done in polished agate. Wrought ironwork was produced by Vic Reynaud of Technique Manufacturing in the spirit of Samuel Yellin who did the Commons Room ironwork.</p><br>
<h2>Recent proposed changes to the Cathedral</h2><br>
<p>In the early 2000s, there was some controversy over whether university funds should be used to illuminate the Cathedral at night, or to clean the buildings façade. The cleaning was abandoned because it was too costly. Some Oakland residents spoke out against the cleaning, stating that the years of soot should stay as an homage to Pittsburghs industrial past. However, the university approved nearly $5 million for cleaning and restoration of stonework on February 28, 2007. The work was completed at the end of 2007, restoring the exterior of the building to its original condition.</p><br>
<p>In the wake of the September 11 attacks, the Cathedral was deemed "at risk" because no obstacles were in place to prevent a vehicle from driving into the entrances of the building. To address this concern, the university installed bollards that rise out of the sidewalk.</p><br>
<p>In 2014 the Property and Facilities Committee approved a plan for a $10.4 million upgrade of the buildings elevator system. This is the second major upgrade of the elevators to have been implemented throughout the buildings history. Originally manually controlled and later automated to Westinghouse Selectomatic in 1971, the system was completely modernized into Otis Compass destination dispatch in 2016.</p><br>
<p>Glen Coe  is a glen of volcanic origins, in the Highlands of Scotland. It lies in the north of Argyll, close to the border with Lochaber. It is often considered one of the most spectacular and beautiful places in Scotland, and is a part of the designated National Scenic Area of Ben Nevis and Glen Coe. The narrow glen shows a grim grandeur. The glen, approaching from the east on the main A82 road, is surrounded by wild and precipitous mountains. Further west at Invercoe, the landscape has a softer beauty before the main entrance to the glen. The main settlement is the nearby village of Glencoe located at the foot of the glen, near the site of the 1692 Massacre of Glencoe.</p><br>
<p>The Glen is named after the River Coe which runs through it. The name of the river may predate the Gaelic language as its meaning is not known although it is possible that the name stems from an individual personal name, Comhan (genitive Comhain). Another theory gives glen of the dogs.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The glen is U-shaped, formed by an ice age glacier, about 12.5 km long with the floor of the glen being less than 700 m (0.4 miles) wide, narrowing sharply at the Pass of Glen Coe.</p><br>
<p>The entrance to the glen from the west is below the foot of Buachaille Etive Beag just west of Lochan na Fola. From hereabouts the waters run to Loch Leven. It is usual for the area east of Lochan na Fola to be classed as within Glencoe but it is not in fact, being an upper reach of Glen Etive. Glen Coe twists and turns before opening out at Loch Leven.</p><br>
<p>The south side of the glen is marked by a succession of distinct peaks: Buachaille Etive Beag, then by the Three Sisters, shoulders of the Bidean nam Bian massif, subdivided by Coire Gabhail (the Glen of Capture or Hidden Valley) and Coire nan Lochan. The third sister is Aonach Dubh. By contrast the north side of the glen is a stark wall of mountain, the Aonach Eagach ridge. The Ridge is crossed at the eastern end by the Devil&#39;s Staircase, an old military road opposite Buachaille Etive Mòr. The western end terminates with the conical Pap of Glencoe (Sgùrr na Cìche), above Glencoe village, at the point where the glen opens out to Loch Leven.</p><br>
<p>The River Coe itself — Ossians "dark Cona" — rises at the north-eastern base of Buachaille Etive Beag and flows west along the glen, with dramatic waterfalls at the Pass of Glen Coe. It then runs through the small Loch Achtriochtan before it turns north west. It then passes through Glencoe village, shortly before flowing into the sea loch of Loch Leven (a salt-water arm of Loch Linnhe) at Invercoe. Loch Achtriochtan is Loch Trychardan (three friends or relatives) in Timothy Ponts map of the area. In the glen to the east of Buachaille Etive Beag, the River Coupall runs north to the head of the glen, but it swings east round the Buachaille Etive Mòr to join the River Etive running south.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Geologically speaking, Glen Coe is the remains of an ancient supervolcano. It is considered to be one of the best examples of subsidence calderas. The eruption happened about 420 million years ago during the Silurian period, and the volcano has long since become extinct.</p><br>
<p>The landscape was further shaped by the processes of glaciation during the last ice age, 10,000 years ago.</p><br>
<h2>Ownership</h2><br>
<p>Glen Coe was once part of the lands of Clan Donald, though since the ending of the clan structure they have progressively sold off their estates.</p><br>
<p>The land was purchased by the National Trust for Scotland in the 1930s using money donated by the Scottish Mountaineering Club. It was later found out that most of the money came from the SMCs then chair, Percy Unna. He laid out a number of conditions, known as the "Unna Principles" regarding how the NTS should manage the estate with regards to Access and maintaining the wild nature of the land. The building of a visitor centre caused some controversy, as some felt this to be a contravention of Unnas "Principles". The original centre was later closed, and a new one built further west, down the glen on land not part of the original purchase.</p><br>
<p>The last area of Glen Coe to be owned by the MacDonalds was the area around Invercoe. In 1894 Donald Alexander Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal purchased this area and built a stately mansion, Mount Royal. In 2002 Alistair MacDonald of Glencoe made a successful eleventh-hour bid, and purchased the remaining lands of Lord Strathcona from his descendants. Alistair received unsecured loans from just six donors, and immediately set up the Glencoe Heritage Trust, a non-profit-making charitable trust, to secure the heritage of Glen Coe.</p><br>
<p>Most of the Glen is now owned by the National Trust for Scotland whose visitor centre has displays about both the natural and historical significance of the glen. Lord Maurice Hurrell F.C.I.I, was a certified owner from December 2012 and also part owner of the land around Dunans Castle, Glendaruel, Argyll and Bute.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism, walkers and climbers</h2><br>
<p>Glen Coe is a very popular tourist destination: partly because of its scenic qualities and historical associations, partly because it is on the main road north (the A82), and also because of its attraction for walkers and climbers. It is famous for the quality, and variety of its winter climbing, most of its routes being comparatively easy to access from the main road.</p><br>
<p>Many walkers come to Glen Coe on the West Highland Way following the old military road over Rannoch Moor which crosses the River Etive at the Kings House Hotel. From there it is about 2 km to the head of the glen, then about 2 km into the glen the Way ascends the Devil&#39;s Staircase, a steep, boulder-strewn "cut" (352 m high) which is part of the old military road and drove road north across the hills to Kinlochleven.</p><br>
<p>For hillwalkers there are several good routes on the Bidean nam Bian (1,150 m) massif which forms a complex Y-shaped hill with several lesser tops, including Stob Coire Sgreamhach (1,072 m) which also has Munro status. One attractive way in to these tops ascends from the Pass of Glen Coe up along the Hidden Glen, Coire Gabhail, to the ridge. Both Buachaille Etive Beag (958 m) and Buachaille Etive Mòr (1,022 m) also offer opportunities to hillwalkers.</p><br>
<p>Rock climbers concentrate on the Buachaille Etive Mòr (1,018 m), often called simply "The Beuchle", and on the various routes on the Three Sisters (shoulders of Bidean nam Bian). For adventurous experienced walkers, the finest mainland scramble in the UK is the Aonach Eagach. This extended scramble boasts two of Scotland&#39;s trickiest Munro hills, Sgorr nam Fiannaidh (996 m) and Meall Dearg (951 m). The Aonach Eagach ridge terminates at the Pap of Glencoe (741 m).</p><br>
<p>The Glencoe ski centre, also known as the White Corries, is on the hill of Meall a&#39; Bhuiridh (1,108 m) which is on the east side of Glen Etive, outside Glen Coe proper. This centre is popular with locals and is used by many skiers from the Glasgow area as the nearest ski resort at under 80 mi from the city centre. It forms part of the "Black Mount" estate, which is based on Loch Tulla which is to the South East.</p><br>
<p>Other points of interest include The Study at the Pass of Glen Coe; the cave of Ossian, where tradition says that he was born. The Iona cross was erected in 1883 by a Macdonald in memory of his clansmen who perished in the massacre of 1692. There is car parking at the scenic waterfalls in the Pass of Glen Coe, which was used as the location for "The Bridge of Death" and "The Gorge of Eternal Peril" in filming Monty Python and the Holy Grail, attracting Monty Python pilgrims. Sets for the third Harry Potter film, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, were built near to the bottom of Clachaig Gully, north of the Clachaig Inn. There are also some shots of the eastern glen, including Buachaille Etive Mòr in the Bollywood film Kuch Kuch Hota Hai, and in the James Bond film Skyfall (which was mainly filmed in Glen Etive). There is a folk museum in Glencoe village.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements, tourist accommodation</h2><br>
<p>Other than a few scattered farms, the only settlement in Glen Coe is the village of Glencoe, which lies at the western end of the glen close to Invercoe where the river joins Loch Leven. About 2 km to the west, on the southern shore of the loch, is the village of Ballachulish, known in the past for its slate quarries, which have been worked since 1760.</p><br>
<p>The famous Clachaig Inn, a pub with a nearby camp site much favoured by climbers and hillwalkers, is sited at the bend in the glen about 3 km from Glencoe village. A Scottish Youth Hostels Association hostel is sited about 2 km from the village, on the way to the inn, as well as an independent hostel (Glencoe Independent Hostel). The Kings House Hotel, lying about 2 km to the east of the head of the glen towards Rannoch Moor, is a relic of the old coaching days when it was customary for tourists to drive from Ballachulish via Tyndrum to Loch Lomond. This old inn still welcomes visitors, and thrives on the tales of walkers and skiers, as well as climbers down from the glen&#39;s peaks. One can also stay in The Glencoe Inn, located in the heart of Glencoe Village.</p><br>
<p>For campers, there are three official campsites in and around the Glen. Wild camping is permitted in certain areas of the Glen, in accordance with the Scottish outdoor access code and the principles specified by Percy Unna. However, environmental concerns and increasing pollution of the River Coe in the mid 1990s led to a decision to exclude a specific area and prohibit wild camping within that area. The area is to the east of the Clachaig Hotel, from the River Coe to the Aonach Eagach, and east as far as the junction of the Old Military Road and the modern A82. The exclusion has led to improvements being observed in the river and the Clachaig area.</p><br>
<p>Well known residents of Glencoe include Hamish MacInnes, veteran of Mount Everest expeditions, climbing consultant for such films as the Eiger Sanction and a mountain rescue pioneer.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>Glencoe is supposed to have been the birthplace of Ossian according to John Cameron (1822–1898), a local bard who was also Bard to the Ossianic Society. "In the middle of the vale runs the roaring stream of Cona, the mountain of Malmor rises on the south side, and the celebrated Dun-Fionn - the hill of Fingal on the north. Several of the names referring either to the heroes of the Fingalian race, or to their general occupation, hunting, are numerous in the district. Sgur-mam-Fiann, the mountain of the Fingalians; Coe, the name of the river is supposed to be the Cona of Ossian; Grianan Dearduil, the sunny place of Darthula; Acha-nan-con, the field of the dogs; Caolas-nan-con, the ferry of the dogs, and the neighbouring country bear similar traces. Morven is the peculiar name of Fingal&#39;s domain; an island in Loch Etive is supposed to be named from Usnoth, the father of Nathos; and Etive itself is named from the deer of its mountains."</p><br>
<p>The Huron Mountains are located in the Upper Peninsula of the USA state of Michigan, mostly in Marquette and Baraga counties, overlooking Lake Superior. Their highest peak is Mount Arvon which, at 1,979 ft above sea level, is the highest point in the state of Michigan. Nearby Mt. Curwood, Michigan&#39;s second highest mountain at 1,978 ft, is also a part of the Huron Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The mountains are the remnants of much higher peaks, composed of rocks dating back to the Precambrian period, which have gone through successive periods of uplift and erosion. The outcroppings of granite and metamorphic rocks bear the evidence of more recent glacial action. Geologically, the area is part of the Canadian shield.</p><br>
<p>The region is subject to heavy lake-effect snow from Lake Superior. No official weather records are maintained in the mountains, but annual snowfall averages easily exceed 200 in across the entire range. Some higher elevations probably average over 250 in. A community called Herman receives an unofficial average of 236 in per season.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The region is characterized by its boreal vegetation and unusually diverse and pristine habitats. It includes one of the largest remnants of substantially undisturbed old-growth forest in the upper Great Lakes region (including the Porcupine Mountains, the Sylvania Tract, and the Boundary Waters Canoe Area). Forests on the uplands are dominated by hemlock and northern hardwoods. Forests on the steep slopes and mountain ridges are dominated by pine-oak stands.</p><br>
<p>Fauna in the area includes wolves, moose, coyotes, fisher, marten, mink, white-tailed deer, gray and red foxes, porcupines, black bears, river otters and beavers.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>The area has been preserved largely due to the influence of the highly exclusive Huron Mountain Club (HMC), which owns a large tract of land in the mountains, including a portion of the Salmon Trout River. The club commissioned noted naturalist Aldo Leopold to create a preservation plan for the area. However, the private club also restricts access to its property, which is unfortunate for white water rafting enthusiasts since the Salmon Trout is rumored to be one of the best rafting rivers in Michigan. The exclusive club even put Henry Ford on a waiting list. In order to gain favor with the club, Ford blocked the construction of a planned extension of highway M-35 through the mountains. After gaining membership, Ford commissioned noted architect Albert Kahn in 1929 to build a $100,000 cabin for his use.</p><br>
<p>The Huron Mountain Wildlife Foundation sponsors natural science research in the region, including the HMC lands.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1950s, the Huron Mountains were a candidate for becoming a national park. However, the HMC was influential in undermining the proposal.</p><br>
<p>The Funj Sultanate of Sennar ) was a sultanate in the north of Sudan, named after the Funj ethnic group of its dynasty, or Sinnar  after its capital, which ruled a substantial area of northeast Africa between 1504 and 1821.</p><br>
<h2>Origin</h2><br>
<p>In the 15th century the part of Nubia previously controlled by Makuria was home to a number of small states and subject to frequent incursions by desert nomads. The situation in Alodia is less well known, but it also seems as though that state had collapsed. The area was reunified under Abdallah Jamma, the gatherer, who came from the eastern regions that had grown wealthy and powerful from the trade on the Red Sea. To him is ascribed the capture of Soba, which sank into unimportance: according to Reubeni, in the time of ‘Amara Dunqas it was in ruins. ‘Abdallah’s status as Muslim hero is confirmed by traditions representing him marrying the daughter of a Hijazi holy man called Alshikh Hamd Abou Dunana who was burned in Abu Delaig, and as the eponymous ancestor of the ruling clan, the ‘Abdallab.</p><br>
<p>Abdallah&#39;s empire was short lived as in the early 16th century the Funj people under Amara Dunqas arrived from the south, having been driven north by the Shilluk. The Funj defeated the kingdom of Aiwa in 1504 and set up their own kingdom based at Sennar. The new Funj kingdom reached from north to the third cataract, south to the foothills of Ethiopia, and east to the desert of Kordofan. Its rulers were Muslim and used Arabic as the lingua franca of trade. Although, the court was conducted all in Funj. Only in the 18th century did the court start using Arabic.</p><br>
<p>The Funj Monarchy was a partrimonial regime built on a Sudanese concept of the semidivine kingship. The public appearance of sultans was accompanied by pomp and ceremony, but Funj rulers spent most of their reigns secluded from public view. The ruler was in principle absolite but was in practice very much under the sway his viziers, courtiers, and family. Provincial nobles lived in castles supported by their own slave retainers. Provincial nobles, however, had to appear before the sultan each year to perform obeisance, account for their behavoir, and deliver tribute. Each lesser lord was also required to take a wife from the royal family so that every vassal was related to the ruler. The ruling community formed a caste-like group that avoided intermarriage with the local population. The Funj sultanate reached its maximum power in the reign of Badi the 2nd (1644-1680).</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>Islam had an important influence, and in 1523 the Sennar monarchy officially converted to Islam. Islam spread in the Funj sultanate not only as the result of its acceptance by the governing elite and the trading communities, but also as the result of the migration of Ulama and holy men into the region. In the 16th century Funj patronage attracted scholars from Egypt, North Africa, and Arabia. These holy men, known locally as faqis, were scholars of the Quran and Islamic Law and Sufi mystics. The Ulama had considerable influence, because they could intercede with and even rebuke the rulers, and because they were venerated by the common people for their miracles. Many Ulama were also merchants who founded lineages, settled in villages, established madrassahs, and won the populace over to Islam. Their zawiyas were residences and places of prayer in which the holy men lived surrounded by their families, servants, and disciples. Their schools Khalwas taught young boys the Quran, Islamic Law, and Islamic theology. In time the zawiyas grew into colonies and villages in which the descendants of the original holy men maintained a spiritual or temporal authority. They administered Maliki Law, arbitrated local disputes, and instructed the people in Islam. They were believed to possess barakah, the power given by God to perform miracles. The eastern Sudanic Ulama were also members of the Sufi brotherhoods. The Shadhiliya was brought into the Sudan in the 15th century, the Qadariyya in the middle 16th, and the Majdhubiyya in the 18th.</p><br>
<h2>Expansion and conflicts</h2><br>
<p>Sennar expanded rapidly at the expense of neighboring states. Its power was extended over the Gezira, the Butana, the Bayuda, and southern Kordofan. This caused immediate tensions with its neighbours. Ethiopia felt it was much threatened but its internal problems prevented intervention. Newly Ottoman Egypt also saw the new state as a threat and invaded in force, but then failed to conquer the area, so the Ottoman forces fortified the border and consolidated their hold on northern Nubia. This border would hold until 1821.</p><br>
<p>Relations with Ethiopia were more strained as both states competed over lowlands between their two states. Eventually the Ethiopians moved their capital to nearby Gondar and secured their influence over these areas. Conflicts with the Shilluk to the south continued, but later the two were forced into an uneasy alliance to combat the growing might of the Dinka. Under Sultan Badi II, Sennar defeated the Kingdom of Taqali to the west and made its ruler (styled Woster or Makk) his vassal.</p><br>
<h2>Military culture</h2><br>
<p>The many armies of Sennar relied most on heavy cavalry: horsemen drawn from the nobility, armed with long broadswords as the toe stirrups they used did not permit the use of lances. These riders were armoured with chain mail while the horses were covered in thick quilts and copper headgear. A greater mass of troops were infantry carrying swords and who were also armoured. This permanent standing army, the largest in East Africa until the 1810s, was garrisoned in castles and forts throughout the sultanate. Reliance on a standing army meant that the professional armies fielded by Sennar were usually smaller, but highly effective against their less organized rivals.</p><br>
<p>The sultanate was heavily divided along geographic and racial/ethnic lines. The society was divided into six racial groups. There was a sharp division between those who were the heirs of the ancient kingdom of Alodia and the rest of Sennar. The Alodians adopted the mantle of the defeated Abdallah Jamma and came to be known as the Abdallab. In the late 16th century they rose in revolt under Ajib the Great. Ajib Alkafuta routed the kings of Sennar, first making them his vassals and then seizing almost the entire kingdom in 1606; the kings fled until they reached Abyssinia in the eastern region. The Sennar monarchy regrouped under Adlan I, defeating Ajib in a pair of decisive battles. Eventually a compromise was reached whereby Ajib and his successors would rule the Sennar province of Dongola with a great deal of autonomy.</p><br>
<p>One of the famous Abdallab leaders in 1798 was Alamin Musmar Wad Agib who defeated Hamaj in different battles. Besides his victory against Abyssinia, Alamin Musmar killed both Badi Abuelkilk and his cousin Rajab in different battles.</p><br>
<h2>Trade</h2><br>
<p>The capital Sennar, prosperous through trade, hosted representatives from all over the Middle East and Africa. The wealth and power of the sultans had long rested on the control of the economy. All caravans were controlled by the monarch, as was the gold supply that functioned as the state&#39;s main currency. Important revenues came from customs dues levied on the caravan routers leading to Egypt and the Red Sea ports and on the pilgrimage traffic from the Western Sudan. In the late 17th century the Funj had opened up trading with the Ottoman Empire. In the late 17th century with the introduction of coinage, an unregulated market system took hold, and the sultans lost control of the market to a new merchant middle class. Foreign currencies became widely used by merchants breaking the power of the monarch to closely control the economy. The thriving trade created a wealthy class of educated and literate merchants, who read widely about Islam and became much concerned about the lack of orthodoxy in the kingdom. The monarchy of Sennar had long been regarded as semi-divine, in keeping with ancient traditions, but this idea ran strongly counter to Islam. Many festivals and rituals also persisted from earlier days, and a number them involved massive consumption of alcohol. These traditions were also abandoned. At the same time civil wars forced the peasants to look to the holy men for protection; the sultans lost the peasant population to the Ulama.</p><br>
<p>The Sultanate also did their best to monopolize the slave trade to Egypt, most notably through the annual caravan of up to one thousand slaves. This monopoly was most successful in the seventeenth century, although it still worked to some extent in the eighteenth.</p><br>
<h2>Decline</h2><br>
<p>Sennar was at its peak at the end of the 16th century, but during the 17th century it began to decline as the power of the monarchy was eroded. The greatest challenge to the authority of the king was the merchant funded ulema who insisted it was rightfully their duty to mete out justice.</p><br>
<p>In 1762, Badi IV was overthrown in a coup launched by Abu Likayik of the red Hamaj from the northeast of the country. Abu Likayik installed another member of the royal family as his puppet sultan and ruled as regent. This began a long conflict between the Funj sultans attempting to reassert their independence and authority and the Hamaj regents attempting to maintain control of the true power of the state.</p><br>
<p>These internal divisions greatly weakened the state and in the late 18th century Mek Adlan II, son of Mek Taifara, took power during a turbulent time at which a Turkish presence was being established in the Funj kingdom. The Turkish ruler, Al-Tahir Agha, married Khadeeja, daughter of Mek Adlan II. This paved the way for the assimilation of the Funj into the Ottoman Empire.</p><br>
<p>In 1821, Ismail bin Muhammad Ali, the general and son of the nominally Ottoman khedive of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, led an army into Sennar; he encountered no resistance from the last king, whose realm was promptly absorbed into "Ottoman" Egypt. The region was subsequently absorbed into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the independent Republic of Sudan on that country&#39;s independence in 1956.</p><br>
<p>The autonomy of the provincial vassals, merchant communities, and Ulama and their peasant clients subverted the power of the Funj sultanate. After a long and fitful history, the Funj kingdom disintegrated in the 18th century. The system of marriage alliances and princely hostages on which the power of the state depended on broke down; local dynasties became autonomous. The Funj kingdom was finally brought to an end by the Egyptian conquest. Muhammad Ali Pasha, the ruler of Egypt, established a government of Egyptian and Turkish officers based in the new city of Khartoum to exact tribute in slaves for the Egyptian army. The Egyptians created a counter-relgious elite to the indigineous Ulama by setting up a hierarchy of Qadis and Muftis and a new court system, and by educating young Sudanese scholars at al-Azhar in Cairo.</p><br>
<h2>Rulers</h2><br>
<p>The rulers of Sennar held the title of Mek (sultan). Their regnal numbers vary from source to source.</p><br>
<p>Amara Dunqas 1503-1533/4 (AH 940)</p><br>
<p>Nayil 1533/4 (AH 940)-1550/1 (AH 957)</p><br>
<p>Abd al-Qadir I 1550/1 (AH 957)-1557/8 (AH 965)</p><br>
<p>Abu Sakikin 1557/8 (AH 965)-1568</p><br>
<p>Dakin 1568-1585/6 (AH 994)</p><br>
<p>Dawra 1585/6 (AH 994)-1587/8 (AH 996)</p><br>
<p>Tayyib 1587/8 (AH 996)-1591</p><br>
<p>Unsa I 1591-1603/4 (AH 1012)</p><br>
<p>Abd al-Qadir II 1603/4 (AH 1012)-1606</p><br>
<p>Adlan I 1606-1611/2 (AH 1020)</p><br>
<p>Badi I 1611/2 (AH 1020)-1616/7 (AH 1025)</p><br>
<p>Rabat I 1616/7 (AH 1025)-1644/5</p><br>
<p>Badi II 1644/5-1681</p><br>
<p>Unsa II 1681–1692</p><br>
<p>Badi III 1692–1716</p><br>
<p>Unsa III 1719–1720</p><br>
<p>Nul 1720–1724</p><br>
<p>Badi IV 1724–1762</p><br>
<p>Nasir 1762–1769</p><br>
<p>Isma&#39;il 1768–1776</p><br>
<p>Adlan II 1776–1789</p><br>
<p>Awkal 1787–1788</p><br>
<p>Tayyib II 1788–1790</p><br>
<p>Badi V 1790</p><br>
<p>Nawwar 1790–1791</p><br>
<p>Badi VI 1791–1798</p><br>
<p>Ranfi 1798–1804</p><br>
<p>Agban 1804–1805</p><br>
<p>Badi VII 1805–1821</p><br>
<h2>Hamaj regents</h2><br>
<p>Abu Likayik – 1769-1775/6</p><br>
<p>Badi walad Rajab – 1775/6-1780</p><br>
<p>Rajab 1780-1786/7</p><br>
<p>Nasir 1786/7-1798</p><br>
<p>Idris wad Abu Likayik – 1798–1804</p><br>
<p>Adlan wad Abu Likayik – 1804–1805</p><br>
<p>The Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain is a mostly undersea mountain range in the Pacific Ocean that reaches above sea level in Hawaii. It is composed of the Hawaiian ridge, consisting of the islands of the Hawaiian chain northwest to Kure Atoll, and the Emperor Seamounts: together they form a vast underwater mountain region of islands and intervening seamounts, atolls, shallows, banks and reefs along a line trending southeast to northwest beneath the northern Pacific Ocean. The seamount chain, containing over 80 identified undersea volcanoes, stretches over 5,800 km from the Aleutian Trench in the far northwest Pacific to the Loʻihi seamount, the youngest volcano in the chain, which lies about 35 km southeast of the Island of Hawaiʻi.</p><br>
<h2>Regions</h2><br>
<p>The chain can be divided into three subsections. The first, the Hawaiian archipelago (also known as the Windward isles), consists of the islands comprising the USA state of Hawaii. As it is the closest to the hotspot, this volcanically active region is the youngest part of the chain, with ages ranging from 400,000 years to 5.1 million years. The island of Hawaii is composed of five volcanoes, of which three (Kilauea, Mauna Loa, and Hualalai) are still active. Lōihi Seamount continues to grow offshore, and is the only known volcano in the chain in the submarine pre-shield stage.</p><br>
<p>The second part of the chain is composed of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, collectively referred to as the Leeward isles, the constituents of which are between 7.2 and 27.7 million years in age. On June 15, 2006, USA President George W. Bush issued a proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906. The national monument, meant to protect the biodiversity of the Hawaiian isles, encompasses all of the northern isles, and is one of the largest such protected areas in the world. The proclamation limits tourism to the area, and calls for a phase-out of fishing by 2011.</p><br>
<p>The oldest and most heavily eroded part of the chain are the Emperor seamounts, which are 39 to 85 million years in age. The Emperor and Hawaiian chains form an angle of about 120°. This bend was long attributed to a relatively sudden change of 60° in the direction of plate motion, but research conducted in 2003 suggests that it was the movement of the hotspot itself that caused the bend. The issue is still currently under debate. All of the volcanoes in this part of the chain have long since subsided below sea level, becoming seamounts and guyots (see also the seamount and guyot stages of Hawaiian volcanism). Many of the volcanoes are named after former emperors of Japan. The seamount chain extends to the West Pacific, and terminates at the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, a subduction zone at the border of Russia.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>The oldest age for the Emperor Seamounts is 81 million years, and comes from Detroit Seamount. However, Meiji Guyot, located to the north of Detroit Seamount, is likely somewhat older.</p><br>
<p>In 1963, geologist John Tuzo Wilson hypothesized the origins of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, explaining that they were created by a hotspot of volcanic activity that was essentially stationary as the Pacific tectonic plate drifted in a northwesterly direction, leaving a trail of increasingly eroded volcanic islands and seamounts in its wake. An otherwise inexplicable kink in the chain marks a shift in the movement of the Pacific plate some 47 million years ago, from a northward to a more northwesterly direction, and the kink has been presented in geology texts as an example of how a tectonic plate can shift direction comparatively suddenly. A look at the USGS map on the origin of the Hawaiian Islands clearly shows this "spearpoint".</p><br>
<p>In a more recent study, Sharp and Clague (2006) interpret the bend as starting at about 50 million years ago. They also conclude that the bend formed from a "traditional" cause—a change in the direction of motion of the Pacific plate.</p><br>
<p>However, recent research shows that the hotspot itself may have moved with time. Some evidence comes from analysis of the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite in ancient lava flows sampled at four seamounts (Tarduno et al., 2003): this evidence from paleomagnetism shows a more complex history than the commonly accepted view of a stationary hotspot. If the hotspot had remained above a fixed mantle plume during the past 80 million years, the latitude as recorded by the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite (paleolatitude) should be constant for each sample; this should also signify original cooling at the same latitude as the current location of the Hawaiian hotspot. Instead of remaining constant, the paleolatitudes of the Emperor Seamounts show a change from north to south, with decreasing age. The paleomagnetic data from the seamounts of the Emperor chain suggest motion of the Hawaiian hotspot in Earth&#39;s mantle. Tarduno et al. (2009) have summarized evidence that the bend in the seamount chain may be caused by circulation patterns in the flowing solid mantle (mantle "wind") rather than a change in plate motion.</p><br>
<h2>Aging</h2><br>
<p>The chain has been produced by the movement of the ocean crust over the Hawaii hotspot, an upwelling of hot rock from the Earth&#39;s mantle. As the oceanic crust moves the volcanoes farther away from their source of magma, their eruptions become less frequent and less powerful until they eventually cease to erupt altogether. At that point erosion of the volcano and subsidence of the seafloor cause the volcano to gradually diminish. As the volcano sinks and erodes, it first becomes an atoll island and then an atoll. Further subsidence causes the volcano to sink below the sea surface, becoming a seamount and/or a guyot.</p><br>
<p>The Clatsop Plains are an area of wetlands and sand dunes between the Northern Oregon Coast Range and Pacific Ocean in northwestern Oregon in the United States. They stretch from near the mouth of the Columbia River south to the vicinity of Tillamook Head near Seaside. The plains are drained by several coastal rivers include the Skipanon River and the Necanicum River, which flow parallel to the coast and empty into the Columbia at Youngs Bay near Astoria and into the Pacific Ocean near Seaside respectively. At the time, the Lewis and Clark expedition recorded a different river draining the plains which entered the Pacific near the current day Camp Rilea Armed Forces Training Center. Research, 200 years later in 2005, seems to have confirmed this by locating an old river channel.</p><br>
<p>The plains are named for the Clatsop tribe of Native Americans who lived in the area at the time of the arrival of Europeans and European Americans by ship at the end of the 18th century and by land at the beginning of the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>These plains were developed from sand filling in the shoreline during the late Quaternary age. The northern portion is a result of the creation of the south jetty on the Columbia River built in 1885. Within the plain are several lakes including Cullaby, Sunset (Neacoxie), Smith, and Coffenbury. The latter three are filled by groundwater and not local streams or rivers.</p><br>
<p>The first white settlement of Clatsop Plains was by two Methodist missionaries, the first missionaries to arrive in Clatsop County. Solomon H. Smith who with Rev. Joseph H. Frost established a Methodist mission there in 1841 and built homes for their families on Clatsop Plains.</p><br>
<p>The first Presbyterian church was founded in 1846. Robert Morrison donated 10 acres for the church grounds, and then two more for a cemetery. The first church was built in 1850, but was destroyed by a windstorm in 1853. It was the first Protestant church built west of the Rocky Mountains. A new church was built and served until 1927, when the current building replaced it. The church is located east of Camp Rilea. The Pioneer cemetery established in 1846, making it the oldest in the county, is the burial place for many early settlers.</p><br>
<p>A community called "Clatsop Plains" was established and incorporated in 1870, primarily for the purpose of restricting cattle grazing along the sea ridge. This grazing was destroying the ridge grass and plants that prevented sand from blowing onto the nearby farms. As incorporated originally, "Clatsop Plains" extended from the Skipanon River to Seaside. An actual town eventually came into being about a mile north of Seaside, and was later absorbed into Gearhart. However, its early proximity to Seaside is probably why Seaside itself was sometimes referred to Clatsop Plains.</p><br>
<p>The coastal grassy areas of Clatsop Plains are home to the endangered Oregon silverspot butterfly (Speyeria zerene hippolyta).</p><br>
<p>A stretch of, the Oregon Coast Highway, runs through most of the length of Clatsop Plains.</p><br>
<p>Île Amsterdam (, also known as Amsterdam Island, New Amsterdam, or Nouvelle Amsterdam, is an island named after the ship Nieuw Amsterdam, in turn named after the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam that later became New York City in the United States. It lies in the southern Indian Ocean. It is part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands and, together with neighbouring Île Saint-Paul 85 km to the south, forms one of the five districts of the territory. The Martin-de-Viviès research station, first called Camp Heurtin and then La Roche Godon, is the only settlement on the island and is home to about thirty non-permanent inhabitants involved in biological, meteorological and geomagnetic studies.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Discovery</h3><br>
<p>The island was discovered by the Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián Elcano on 18 March 1522, in the course of his voyage of global circumnavigation. However, he did not name the island. Having found the island unnamed, Dutch captain Anthonie van Diemen named it Nieuw Amsterdam after his ship on 17 June 1633. The first recorded landing was made in December 1696 by Dutchman Willem de Vlamingh.</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>French Captain Pierre François Péron claims he was marooned from 1792 to 1795 on the island. Perons Memoires, in which he describes his experiences, were published in a limited edition, which is an expensive collectors item.</p><br>
<p>There was confusion in the early days between Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands.</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>On 11 October 1833 the British barque Lady Munro was wrecked at the island. Of the 97 persons aboard, 21 survivors were picked up two weeks later by a US sealing schooner, General Jackson.</p><br>
<p>In January 1871 an attempt to settle the island was made by a party led by Heurtin, a French resident of Réunion Island. After seven months, their attempts to raise cattle and grow crops were unfruitful and they returned to Réunion, abandoning the cattle on the island.</p><br>
<p>The islands of Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul were first claimed by Martin Dupeyrat for France in 1843. However, the governor of Réunion refused to ratify the act of possession and France took formal control only in October 1892.</p><br>
<p>In May 1880 HMS Raleigh circumnavigated the island searching for a missing ship the Knowsley Hall. A cutter and gig were despatched to the island to search for signs of habitation. There was a flagstaff on Hoskin Point and 50–70 yards north were two huts, one of which had an intact roof and contained three bunks, empty casks, an iron pot and the egg shells and feathers of sea-birds. There was also an upturned serviceable boat in the other hut, believed to be evidence of fisherman who visit the island.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>The islands were attached to Madagascar in 1924 and became a French colony. The first French base on Amsterdam was established in 1949, and was originally called Camp Heurtin. The Global Atmosphere Watch still maintains a presence on Amsterdam.</p><br>
<h3>Amateur radio</h3><br>
<p>In the past there were frequent amateur radio operations from Amsterdam Island between 1987 and 1998. There was even a resident radio amateur operator in the 1950s using callsign FB8ZZ.</p><br>
<p>As of January 2014, Clublog listed Amsterdam and St Paul Islands as the seventh most-wanted DXCC entity. On 25 January 2014 a DX-pedition landed on Amsterdam Island using M/V Braveheart and began amateur radio operations from two separate locations using callsign FT5ZM. The DX-pedition remained active until 12 February 2014 and achieved over 170,000 two-way contacts with amateur radio stations worldwide.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<h3>Geography</h3><br>
<p>The volcanic island is a potentially active volcano which last erupted in 1792. It has an area of 55 km², measuring about 10 km on its longest side, and reaches as high as 867 m at the Mont de la Dives. The high central area of the island, at an elevation of over 500 m, containing its peaks and caldera, is known as the Plateau des Tourbières (in English the Plateau of Bogs). The cliffs that characterise the western coastline of the island, rising to over 700 m, are known as the Falaises dEntrecasteaux after the 18th-century French navigator Bruni dEntrecasteaux.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Île Amsterdam has a mild, oceanic climate under the Köppen climate classification, with a mean annual temperature of 14 &deg;C, rainfall of 1,100 mm, persistent westerly winds and high levels of humidity. Under the Trewartha climate classification the island is well inside the maritime subtropical zone due to its very low diurnal temperature variation keeping means high.</p><br>
<h3>Flora and fauna</h3><br>
<h4>Vegetation</h4><br>
<p>Phylica arborea trees occur on Amsterdam, which is the only place where they form a low forest, although the trees are also found on Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island. It was called the Grand Bois ("Great Forest"), which covered the lowlands of the island until forest fires set by sealers cleared much of it in 1825. Only eight fragments remain.</p><br>
<p>Some sailors from HMS Raleigh landed on the island on 27 May 1880. They described the vegetation as</p><br>
<p>Rough ground, grass several feet high, myrtle 10–15 feet high in sheltered ravines, sedge, ferns (principally polypodium) and cabbages, grown into bushes with stumps several inches thick in the garden....</p><br>
<h4>Birds</h4><br>
<p>The island is home to the endemic Amsterdam albatross, which breeds only on the Plateau des Tourbières. Other rare species are the great skua, Antarctic tern and western rockhopper penguin. The Amsterdam duck is now extinct, as are the local breeding populations of several petrels. Both the Plateau des Tourbières and Falaises d&#39;Entrcasteaux have been identified as Important Bird Areas by BirdLife International, the latter for its large breeding colony of Indian yellow-nosed albatrosses.</p><br>
<h4>Mammals</h4><br>
<p>There are no native land mammals. Subantarctic fur seals and southern elephant seals breed on the island. Introduced mammals include the house mouse and brown rat. Feral cats are present.</p><br>
<p>A distinct breed of wild cattle, Amsterdam Island cattle, also inhabited the island from 1871 to 2010. They originated from the introduction of five animals by Heurtin during his brief attempt at settlement of the island in 1871, In 2007 it was decided to eradicate the population of cattle entirely, resulting in the slaughter of the cattle between 2008 and 2010.</p><br>
<p>Iolani Barracks, or hale koa  in Hawaiian, was built in 1870, designed by the architect Theodore Heuck, under the direction of King Lot Kapuaiwa. Located directly adjacent to Iolani Palace in downtown Honolulu, it housed about 80 members of the monarch&#39;s Royal Guard until the overthrow of the Monarchy in 1893. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 as part of the Hawaii Capital Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The structure clearly hearkens to the architecture of medieval castles of Europe with its crenelated parapets and towers. It was constructed with 4,000 coral block walls from the same limestone source used to build Kawaiahao Church and the Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace and has a slate roof. It is surrounded by rooms once used by the guards as a mess hall, kitchen, dispensary, berth room, and lockup. Iolani Barracks was originally built a block behind (mauka, or inland of) Iolani Palace.</p><br>
<h2>1873 Barracks Revolt</h2><br>
<p>On September 6, 1873, growing tensions between the enlisted men and the officers resulted in a mutiny after the Hungarian Captain Joseph Jajczay sent four men to the brig for deserting their post guarding the treasury. On the 6th, Jajczay returned from church to the barracks and was attacked by his own soldiers and the prisoners. When Adjutant General Charles Hastings Judd tried to calm the situation he was also attacked. The mutineers took control of the ʻIolani Barracks and later retrieved and loaded two cannons from near the palace. Authorities decided to wait out the mutiny by surrounding the barracks, but did not attack. On the 9th, King Lunalilo interviewed the mutineers and issued an offer to them; 13 agreed and surrendered.</p><br>
<p>The Hungarian-born Jajczay was replaced by native Hawaiian Major William Luther Moehonua.</p><br>
<p>On the 12th, the 24 remaining mutineers agreed to another offer by the king granting full amnesty to end the mutiny. After this revolt, Lunalilo disbanded the Hawaiian Army; it was not restored until King Kalākaua came to power.</p><br>
<h2>Post-Monarchy</h2><br>
<p>After the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, the Royal Guard were paid their month’s salary and disbanded. The barracks was used on several occasions as the headquarters of the National Guard of Hawaii. The building was used as temporary shelter for victims of the 1899 Chinatown fire. It also housed government offices and at one point served as a warehouse.</p><br>
<p>In 1965, the structure was moved, stone by stone, to its current location to make room for the Hawaii State Capitol. Today, the building serves as a visitors center for Iolani Palace and houses a gift shop, ticket office, video theater, and membership office.</p><br>
<p>The Emba River  in west Kazakhstan rises in the Mugodzhar Hills and flows some 400 miles south-west into the Caspian Sea. It flows through the north of the Ust-Urt plateau, and reaches the Caspian by a series of shallow lagoons, which were navigable in the 18th century. The lower course traverses an area of salt domes and the petroleum-rich Emba fields. It is sometimes regarded as a definition for the natural boundary between Europe and Asia, and was first proposed as such by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg.</p><br>
<p>In its upper course, the Emba is a small river, its valley barely over 2,000 m wide. Lower down, after the waters of the Temir River flow into it, the Emba&#39;s valleys widen to almost 7 km. The Emba flows in a single channel, only breaking off into little arms in places. But around 100 km before it enters the Caspian Sea, it breaks off in places to form several lakes, which are connected to each other through slender channels that only run during flooding. The Emba is a snow-fed river. It freezes over in winter, a process that begins in November and lasts until March.</p><br>
<h2>Oil basin</h2><br>
<p>The oil basin of the Emba lies between the Mugodzhar Hills in the east and the Volga in the west. This area was known since olden days as maily kiyan, which means the land blessed with miracle oil. The British merchant Gok mentioned in the mid-17th century that during his travels he came to a spring near the Emba River that spouted oil instead of water.</p><br>
<p>Chatyr-Dah  is a mountainous massif in Crimea, near Simferopol-Alushta highway. In the Crimean Tatar language çatır means tent and dağ means mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The mountain consists of two plateaus: the lower (north) and the upper (south). The lower plateau slopes gently down to its northern side, which is covered in steppe grass. On its southern end (near the steep slope of the higher plateau), the lower plateau is covered with beech forests and juniper glades. It has many hiking trails and several beautiful caves (listed below). On the east side of the lower plateau there is a grove of yews.</p><br>
<p>The upper plateau has the shape of a giant bowl and on its rim, the highest peaks are each named. The upper plateau is covered with alpine meadows. Its slopes are very steep and offer some routes for multipitch climbing (rock climbing routes longer than length of one climbing rope). The highest peak is Eklizi-Bourun (1527 m above sea level).</p><br>
<h2>Some caves of Chatyrdag mountain</h2><br>
<p>Marble Caves</p><br>
<p>Emine Bair Hosar cave</p><br>
<p>Fur-tree cave</p><br>
<p>Obvalnaya cave</p><br>
<p>Vyalova cave</p><br>
<p>Artuch-Koba</p><br>
<p>Vyalova cave system</p><br>
<p>Blackburn Hundred  is an ancient sub-division of the county of Lancashire, in northern England. Its chief town was Blackburn, in the northwest of the hundred. It covered an area similar to modern East Lancashire, including the current districts of Ribble Valley , Pendle , Burnley, Rossendale, Hyndburn, Blackburn with Darwen, and South Ribble .</p><br>
<p>Much of the area is hilly, bordering on the Pennines, with Pendle hill in the midst of it, and was historically sparsely populated. It included several important royal forests. But in the 18th century several towns in the area became industrialized and densely populated, including Blackburn itself, and Burnley.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>The shire probably originated as a county of the Kingdom of Northumbria, but was much fought over. In the Domesday Book it was among the hundreds between the Ribble and Mersey rivers ("Inter Ripam et Mersam" in the Domesday Book) that were included with the information about Cheshire, though they are now in Lancashire and cannot be said clearly to have then been part of Cheshire. The area may have been annexed to the embryonic Kingdom of England following the Battle of Brunanburh in 937.</p><br>
<p>The Domesday Book entry shows that before the Norman conquest, the hundred had been held directly by King Edward. It mentions royal holdings in Blackburn, Huncoat, Walton-le-Dale and Pendleton, and those of a church at Blackburn and St Mary&#39;s in Whalley. Also it talks of 28 freemen holding land as manors, but gives no further details about them. After the conquest Blackburnshire was part of a large area given to Roger de Poitou and he had demised it to Roger de Busli and Albert de Gresle.</p><br>
<p>Domesday also mentions a sizable area of woodland. Two areas, the first one league long and as wide, and another six long and four leagues wide, which could be as much as 225 square miles.</p><br>
<p>Later the much the east of the hundred was established as royal hunting grounds, Known as the forest of Blackburnshire it was divided into the four forests of Accrington, Pendle, Trawden and Rossendale.</p><br>
<h2>Feudal period</h2><br>
<p>At the start of the 12th century Roger de Poitou joined the failed rebellion against King Henry I in favor of his brother Robert Curthose, as a result losing his English holdings. In 1102 King Henry granted the whole of Blackburnshire and part of Amounderness to Robert de Lacy, the Lord of Pontefract, while confirming his possession of Bowland. These lands formed the basis of the Honour of Clitheroe.</p><br>
<p>Subsequently most of the ancient parish of Ribchester, except the township of Alston-with-Hothersall, and in the ancient parish of Chipping, the vills of Aighton and Dutton and part of the forest of Bowland belonging ecclesiastically to the ancient parish of Great Mitton were annexed to Blackburnshire.</p><br>
<p>The separateness of the district was reinforced when it became a royal bailiwick in 1122. In 1182, it became part of the newly created County Palatine of Lancaster.</p><br>
<p>By 1243 it is believed that there were 57 manors in the hundred.</p><br>
<p>Those held in demesne were Colne, Great and Little Marsden, Briercliffe, Burnley, Ightenhill, Habergham, Padiham, Huncoat, Hapton, Accrington, Haslingden, Downham, Worston, Chatburn and Little Pendleton.</p><br>
<p>Those held by thegnage were: Twiston, Chipping, Thornley, Wheatley, Ribchester, Dutton, Dinckley, Henthorn, Wilpshire, Clayton-le-Dale, Salesbury, Osbaldeston, Samlesbury, Read, Simonstone, Oswaldtwistle, Livesey, Birtwistle, Church, Cliviger and Worsthorne.</p><br>
<p>Those held by knight&#39;s service were: Little Mitton, Wiswell, Hapton, Towneley, Coldcoats, Snodworth, Twiston, Extwistle, Aighton, Great Mearley, Livesey, Downham, Foulridge, Little Mearley, Rishton, Billington, Altham, Great Harwood, Clayton le Moors, and Walton in le Dale.</p><br>
<h2>Post medieval</h2><br>
<p>The hundred of Blackburnshire continued to have administrative relevance until the abandonment of the system of hundreds in the early 19th century, long after feudalism ceased in England. As in other parts of England, the hundred was divided into parishes which were ecclesiastical parishes as well as being used for administrative purposes, like modern English civil parishes.</p><br>
<p>Early Blackburnshire had only two parishes, each covering a considerable but sparsely populated area. Whalley (now a much smaller parish) was the larger of the two, and covered the east of the hundred, while Blackburn parish covered the west. As mentioned above, the hundred was expanded to cover parts of the parishes of Chipping, Ribchester and Mitton. As Blackburnshire became more heavily populated and economically developed, the parishes of Whalley and Blackburn were split into many smaller parts over the centuries.</p><br>
<p>The ancient parish of Blackburn contained Blackburn, Little Harwood, Ramsgreave, Salesbury, Clayton-le-Dale, Mellor, Witton, Pleasington, Over Darwen, Lower Darwen, Eccleshill, Tockholes, Livesey, Walton-Le-Dale, Cuerdale, Samlesbury, Balderston, Osbaldeston, Billington, Wilpshire, Dinckley, Great Harwood, Rishton. It also included Yate and Pickup Bank with extra-parochial status.</p><br>
<p>The ancient parish of Whalley contained Whalley, Clitheroe, Chatburn, Worston, Mearley, Bowland-with-Leagram, Mitton, Henthorn and Coldcoats, Pendleton with Pendleton Hall, Standen And Standen Hey (Standen was extra-parochial), Wiswell, Church, Oswaldtwistle, Huncoat, Altham, Clayton-Le-Moors, Old Accrington, New Accrington, Haslingden, Higher Booths, Lower Booths, Henheads, Newchurch in Pendle, Burnley, Habergham Eaves, Briercliffe with Extwistle, Worsthorne with Hurstwood, Cliviger, Ightenhill Park (extra-parochial), Reedley Hallows, Filly Close and New Laund Booth (extra-parochial), Padiham, Simonstone, Read, Hapton, Higham with West Close Booth, Heyhouses (extra-parochial), Dunnockshaw (extra-parochial), Goldshaw Booth, Barley-with-Wheatley Booth, Roughlee Booth, Wheatley Carr Booth (extra-parochial), Old Laund Booth, Colne, Marsden, Barrowford Booth, Foulridge, Trawden, Downham, and Twiston.</p><br>
<p>Blackburn became a separate archdeaconry, splitting off from the archdeaconry of Manchester, in 1877, and becoming the Diocese of Blackburn in 1926.</p><br>
<p>The Tualatin Valley is a farming and suburban region southwest of Portland, Oregon in the United States. The valley is formed by the meandering Tualatin River, a tributary of the Willamette River at the northwest corner of the Willamette Valley, east of the Northern Oregon Coast Range. Most of the valley is located within Washington County, separated from Portland by the Tualatin Mountains. Communities in the Tualatin Valley include Banks, Forest Grove, Cornelius, Hillsboro, Aloha, Beaverton, Sherwood, Tigard, and Tualatin.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the early 19th century, the valley was inhabited by the Atfalati, a hunter-gatherer Kalapuyan band that spoke a dialect of Northern Kalapuyan. In the middle 19th century, the Atfalati lived in several villages in the valley, including Chakeipi ("Place of the Beaver", translated by early white settlers as "Beaver Dam"). Early Euro-American settlers called the valley the "Twality Plains", a corruption of the name of the Atfalati tribe. Other early variations included Falatin, Nefalatine, Twalaity, and Quality, with each roughly translated as slow river to describe the Tualatin River, or may translate as land without trees.</p><br>
<p>The valley was one of the earliest settled farming regions in Oregon, as settlers began arriving in 1840. In the spring of 1847, Lawrence Hall filed the first land claim, comprising 640 acres (2.6 km²), at Beaver Dam (later Beaverton) and constructed the first grist mill in the valley. In 1849 Thomas Hicklin Denney and his wife Berrilla built the first sawmill in the Beaverton area, leading to a later boom in the timber industry.</p><br>
<p>The lack of roads connecting the upper valley to the Willamette River quickly became a hindrance to early settlers. In 1850, the Oregon Territory created the Portland & Valley Plank Road Company to build a road through the Tualatin Hills connecting Portland with Beaverton. The road was completed in 1860 after financial setbacks. According to Oregon historian Stewart Holbrook, the building of the plank road was the decisive event that allowed Portland to surpass its rival Oregon City for supremacy as the economic hub of the territory. The railroad was extended into the valley in 1868.</p><br>
<p>The growth of agriculture in the valley was eventually limited in the middle 20th century by the need for irrigation. In 1966, the United States Bureau of Reclamation built the Tualatin Project, bringing additional water to many parts of the valley in the last federal reclamation project in the Pacific Northwest.</p><br>
<p>In the second half of the 20th century the valley became increasingly suburbanized and now forms a distinct cultural area that rivals Portland itself in political and economic influence. The communities along the Tualatin Valley Highway (the descendant of the old plank road), form a suburban corridor stretching west of Beaverton. Beaverton is famous as the location of the Nike, Inc. campus, the company&#39;s world-wide headquarters. Nike, along with Intel in Hillsboro, provide a large base of employment in the valley. Much of the valley is now within the Portland urban growth boundary, resulting in a suburban growth patterns that interspersed with remaining areas of orchards and farm fields. Most of the communities in the valley are served by TriMet, the Portland-area mass transit agency. In 1998, the MAX Light Rail system was extended from Portland into the valley as far as Hillsboro.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The valley is traversed by the Tualatin River and is bordered on the north and east by the Tualatin Mountains, a spur of the Northern Oregon Coast Range. The latter range also comprises the valleys western border. To the south lie the Chehalem Mountains, separating the region from the main Willamette Valley. The Tualatin River flows mainly from the west to the east and leaves the valley in the southeast at West Linn in Clackamas County. Tualatin Valleys geographical center is located southeast of Hillsboro, and the general elevation of the valley is 180 ft above sea-level.</p><br>
<p>The Church of the Intercession is an Episcopal congregation located at 550 West 155th Street, at Broadway, on the border of the Harlem and Washington Heights neighborhoods of Manhattan, New York City, on the grounds of Trinity Church Cemetery. The congregation was founded in 1846, and the current sanctuary, built in 1912-15, was designed by Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue in the Gothic Revival style. From 1906-1976, it was a chapel of Trinity Church.</p><br>
<p>The Church of the Intercession and its Tudor Revival vicarage were designated New York City Landmarks in 1966, and the complex was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The congregation which became the Church of the Intercession was founded in 1846 in Carmansville, a hamlet which would later be known as Audubon Park before becoming part of the Washington Heights neighborhood, by John James Audubon and John R. Morewood; it was incorporated in 1847. Services were inititially held in Morewood&#39;s home, with members who came from both Trinity Church on Broadway and Wall Street, and from the Church of the Ascension at Fifth Avenue and 10th Street.</p><br>
<p>In 1847, the congregation completed building their first sanctuary, a Victorian Gothic style wooden structure at West 154th Street and Tenth Avenue (now Amsterdam Avenue). The building&#39;s outline can still be seen on what was the adjoining building. In 1871, the vestry decided to move the parish and sell the building.</p><br>
<p>The congregation&#39;s next church was a stone building designed by Rembrandt Lockwood and located at 158th Street and Grand Boulevard, which is now Broadway. However, dissension within the congregation suppressed financial support for the parish, which became insolvent; the church as attached by the sheriff, and services proceeded only on the sufferance of the authorities.</p><br>
<p>Eventually, the congregation was able to recover the church, but by 1906 it was overcrowded, and the parish was still in debt. To alleviate these problems, a deal was struck with Trinity Church, which had intended to build a chapel on the grounds of its cemetery, to disestablish the Church of the Intercession as an independent parish, to become a Trinity Chapel, the Chapel of the Intercession. The cornerstone of a new sanctuary was laid in 1912, and the building was consecrated in 1915. The architect, Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue of Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson, was a master of the Gothic Revival style, and the resulting church is considered to be his masterpiece. Goodhue incorporated elements from other styles into the building, such as the narrow and tall entrances which evoke the English Perpendicular style, while the Decorated Period can be seen in the tracery of the pointed windows, and the tower suggests the Tudor style. The church was built by Edward A. Wehr of Pittsburgh, he considered this his finest piece of work. (The American Magazine, 1925)</p><br>
<p>The congregation again became an independent parish in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Notable facts</h2><br>
<p>David Hurd composed the Intercession Mass during his tenure as church organist. This mass setting is used in many Episcopal congregations.</p><br>
<p>The church is known for its annual Clement Clarke Moore Festival, the oldest continuing Christmas tradition in New York. It takes place on the Sunday before Christmas at 4pm. In 2010 celebrated the one-hundredth anniversary of the tradition. At the center of the service is the reading of Moore&#39;s narrative poem "A Visit from Saint Nicholas".</p><br>
<p>Moore, among others of the New York social elite of the time, are buried in the adjoining Trinity Church Cemetery. Also in the cemetery is an imposing monument to John James Audubon. John Jacob Astor is also buried here, as is Alfred Tennyson Dickens, the son of Charles Dickens. A monument to the architect, Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue, sculpted by his friend Lee Lawrie in 1929, contains his tomb.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The basement of the church was used in the 2012 TV series 666 Park Avenue as The Drake&#39;s "secret room."</p><br>
<p>In the season 1, episode 4 New Amsterdam episode of AMC drama Mad Men, Trudy Campbell divulges to a member of the co-op board that Pete&#39;s great-great grandfather Nicholas Dykeman is buried at The Church of the Intercession.</p><br>
<p>Sirmium was a city in the Roman province of Pannonia. First mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by Illyrians and Celts, it was conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC and subsequently became the capital of the Roman province of Pannonia Inferior. In 294 AD, Sirmium was proclaimed one of four capitals of the Roman Empire. It was also the capital of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum and of Pannonia Secunda. Sirmium was located on the Sava river, on the site of modern Sremska Mitrovica in northern Serbia. The site is protected as an Archaeological Site of Exceptional Importance. The modern region of Syrmia  was named after the city.</p><br>
<p>Sirmium had 100,000 inhabitants and was one of the largest cities of its time. Colin McEvedy, however, put the population at only 7,000, based on the size of the archaeological site. Ammianus Marcellinus called it "the glorious mother of cities".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Remains of Sirmium stand on the site of the modern-day Sremska Mitrovica, 55 km west of Belgrade (Roman Singidunum) and 145 km away from Kostolac (Roman Viminacium). Archaeologists have found traces of organized human life on the site of Sirmium dating from 5,000 BC. The city was firstly mentioned in the 4th century BC and was originally inhabited by the Illyrians and Celts (by the Pannonian-Illyrian Amantini and the Celtic Scordisci). The Triballi king Syrmus was later considered the eponymous founder of Sirmium, but the roots are different, and the two words only became conflated later. The name Sirmium by itself means "flow, flowing water, wetland", referring to its close river position on the nearby Sava.</p><br>
<p>With the Celtic tribe of Scordisci as allies, the Roman proconsul Marcus Vinicius took Sirmium in around 14 BC. In the 1st century AD, Sirmium gained the status of a Roman colony, and became an important military and strategic center of the Pannonia province. The Roman emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Claudius II prepared war expeditions in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>In 103 Pannonia was split into two provinces: Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior, and Sirmium became the capital city of the latter.</p><br>
<p>In 296 Diocletian reorganized Pannonia into four provinces: Pannonia Prima, Pannonia Valeria, Pannonia Savia and Pannonia Secunda, and Sirmium became the capital of Pannonia Secunda. He joined them with Noricum and Dalmatia to establish the Diocese of Pannonia, with Sirmium as its capital also.</p><br>
<p>In 293, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy, the Roman Empire was split into four parts; Sirmium emerged as one of the four capital cities (along with Trier, Mediolanum, and Nicomedia), and was the capital of emperor Galerius. With the establishment of Praetorian prefectures in 318, the capital of the prefecture of Illyricum was Sirmium, remaining so until 379, when the westernmost Diocese of Illyricum, Pannonia (including Sirmium), was detached and joined to the prefecture of Italia assuming the name of Diocese of Illyricum. The eastern part of Illyricum remained a separate prefecture under the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire with its new capital in Thessalonica.</p><br>
<p>From the 4th century, the city was an important Christian center, and the seat of the Bishop of Sirmium. Five church councils, the Councils of Sirmium, took place in Sirmium. The city also had an imperial palace, a horse-racing arena, a mint, an arena theatre, and a theatre, as well as many workshops, public baths, temples, public palaces and luxury villas. Ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus called it "the glorious mother of cities".</p><br>
<p>The mint in Sirmium was connected with the mint in Salona and silver mines in the Dinaric Alps through the Via Argentaria.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the 4th century Sirmium came under the sway of the Goths, and later, was again annexed to the East Roman Empire. In 441 the Huns conquered Sirmium; it remained for more than a century in the hands of various other tribes, such as Eastern Goths and Gepids. For a short time, Sirmium was the centre of the Gepids and king Cunimund minted gold coins there. After 567, Sirmium was returned to the East Roman Empire. The Pannonian Avars conquered and destroyed the city in 582.</p><br>
<h2>Roman emperors</h2><br>
<p>Ten Roman emperors were born in this city or in its surroundings: Herennius Etruscus (251), Hostilian (251), Decius (249–51), Claudius II (268-270), Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270–75), Probus (276–82), Maximian (285–310), Constantius II (337–61), and Gratian (367–83).</p><br>
<p>The last emperor of the united Roman Empire, Theodosius I (378–95), became emperor in Sirmium. The usurpers Ingenuus and Regalianus also declared themselves emperors in this city (in 260) and many other Roman emperors spent some time in Sirmium, including Marcus Aurelius, who might have written parts of his famous work Meditations in the city. Sirmium was, most likely, the site of the death of Marcus Aurelius, of smallpox, in March of 180 CE.</p><br>
<h2>Archeological findings</h2><br>
<p>On the location Glac near Sirmium is found unexcavated the palace of Emperor Maximianus Herculius built on the place where his parents worked as laborers on the estate of a Roman column. During the construction of the hospital in 1971, was found in monumental Jupiters sanctuary with more than eighty of the altar, which is the second largest in Europe. Sirmium had two bridges with which she was bridged river Sava, of which indicate the historical sources, bridge Ad Basanti and Artemidas bridge. After the 313th the Sirmium became an important Christian centre. So far revealed are eight early Christian churches, of which they are dedicated to St. Irenaeus, St. Demetrius. and Sv. Sinenot.</p><br>
<p>During work on the new Sremska Mitrovica trade center in 1972, a worker accidentally broke into an old Roman pot, about 2m deep, over the site of an old Sirmium settlement. 33 gold Roman coins enclosed in a leather pouch were found inside a Roman house wall, probably the hidden savings of a wealthy Roman family stashed centuries ago. Of this extraordinary rare find of Sirmium minted coins were 4 Constantius II era coins, considered the most valuable examples from the late Roman Empire of the fourth century AD. Ironically, the worker&#39;s name was Zlatenko (meaning Golden, or Golden Man in Serbian, Aurelius in Latin).</p><br>
<p>The only known unexcavated Roman Hippodrome in the world is in Sirmium. A colossal building about 150m wide and 450m long lies directly under the Sremska Mitrovica town center and just beside the old Sirmium Emperors Palace (one of just a few Sirmium publicly accessible archeological sites). The presence of the arena has clearly affected the layout of the present town (Sremska Mitrovica is today about 2–4m above ground line of former Sirmium settlement). Recently announced cultural and archeological projects for preserving and popularising Sirmium sites havent included any activity dealing with the arena, probably due to the extent of the large arena — the entire present town center might have to be excavated.</p><br>
<h2>Famous residents</h2><br>
<p>Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor (161–180), used Sirmium as a residence in between Pannonian military campaigns 170–180</p><br>
<p>Maximinus, Roman emperor (235–238), ruled from residence in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Herennius Etruscus, Roman emperor (251), born in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Hostilian, Roman emperor (251), born in Sirmium</p><br>
<p>Decius Traian, Roman emperor (249–251), born in village Budalia near Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Ingenuus, Roman emperor (260), proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Regalianus, Roman emperor (260), proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Claudius II, Roman emperor (268–270), born in Sirmium and spent most of his life there.</p><br>
<p>Quintillus, Roman emperor (270), born in Sirmium</p><br>
<p>Aurelian, Roman emperor (270–275), born in Sirmium and also proclaimed emperor there.</p><br>
<p>Probus, Roman emperor (276–282), born in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Maximianus Herculius, Roman emperor (285–310), born near Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Galerius, Roman emperor (305–311), ruled as Caesar during the Tetrarchy from residence in Sirmium (293–296).</p><br>
<p>Crispus, a Caesar of the Roman Empire. He was proclaimed Caesar in Sirmium in 317.</p><br>
<p>Constantine II, a Caesar of the Roman Empire. He was proclaimed Caesar in Sirmium in 317.</p><br>
<p>Vetranion, Roman emperor. Proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium (in 350).</p><br>
<p>Constantius II, Roman emperor (337–361), born in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Gratian, Roman emperor (367–383), born in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Theodosius I the Great, Roman emperor (378–395). He became emperor in Sirmium.</p><br>
<p>Valerius Licinius, prefect of the Diocese of Pannonia with residence in Sirmium (308–314).</p><br>
<p>Apricanus, prefect of the Pannonia Secunda province with residence in Sirmium (355).</p><br>
<p>Mesala, prefect of the Pannonia Secunda province (373).</p><br>
<p>Petronius Probus, prefect in Sirmium (374).</p><br>
<p>Aurelius Victor, prefect of the Pannonia Secunda province (369), and author of a History of Rome until the reign of Julian.</p><br>
<p>Leontius, prefect in Sirmium (426).</p><br>
<p>Caroline Island or Caroline Atoll , is the easternmost of the uninhabited coral atolls which comprise the southern Line Islands in the central Pacific Ocean.</p><br>
<p>First sighted by Europeans in 1606, claimed by the United Kingdom in 1868, and part of the Republic of Kiribati since the island nation&#39;s independence in 1979, Caroline Island has remained relatively untouched and is considered one of the world&#39;s most pristine tropical islands, despite guano mining, copra harvesting, and human habitation in the 19th and 20th centuries. It is home to one of the world&#39;s largest populations of the coconut crab and is an important breeding site for seabirds, most notably the sooty tern.</p><br>
<p>The atoll is currently designated as a wildlife sanctuary. In 2014 the Kiribati government established a 12-nautical-mile fishing exclusion zone around each of the southern Line Islands (Caroline (commonly called Millennium), Flint, Vostok, Malden, and Starbuck).</p><br>
<p>The atoll is best known for its role in the millennium celebrations. A 1995 realignment of the International Date Line made Caroline Island one of the first points of land on Earth to reach January 1, 2000 on the calendar.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and climate</h2><br>
<p>Caroline Atoll lies near the southeastern end of the Line Islands, a string of atolls extending across the equator some 1,500 km south of the Hawaiian Islands in the central Pacific. The slightly crescent-shaped atoll (3.76 km or 1.45 mi in land area) consists of 39 separate islets surrounding a narrow lagoon, 8.7 by 1.2 km in size, or with an area of 6.3 km. The total atoll area, including dry land, lagoon and reef flat, measures 13 by 2.5 km, or 24 km. The islets rise to a height of only 6 m above sea level. The islets, like those of all atolls, share a common geologic origin and consist of sand deposits and limestone rock set atop a coral reef. According to the path of the International Date Line, Caroline Island is the easternmost point of land on Earth.</p><br>
<p>Three large islets make up the bulk of Caroline&#39;s land area: Nake Islet (1.04 km or 0.40 mi) at the north; Long Islet (0.76 km or 0.29 mi) at the northeast of the lagoon and South Islet (1.07 km or 0.41 mi).</p><br>
<p>The remaining assembly of small islets, most of which were named during the 1988 ecological survey, conducted by Angela and Cameron Kepler, fall into four major groupings: the South Nake Islets, the Central Leeward Islets, the Southern Leeward Islets, and the Windward Islets (see ). Caroline&#39;s islets are particularly ephemeral— over the course of a century of observation, several of the smallest islets have been documented to appear or disappear entirely following major storms, while the shapes of larger ones have significantly changed.</p><br>
<p>The central lagoon, roughly 6 by, is shallow &ndash; at most 5 – in depth &ndash; and is crossed repeatedly by narrow coral heads and patch reefs. Reef flats generally extend about 500 m from shore&mdash; although some sources report them to extend more than a kilometer from land&mdash; and make boat landings perilous except at high tide. There are no natural landings, anchorages, or deep water openings into the central lagoon; water which spills into the lagoon over shallow channels at high tide is contained within the surrounding reef and remains stable despite ocean tides. Most landings are generally made at a small break in the reef at the northeast corner of the South Islet (visible on the satellite photo above).</p><br>
<p>Densities of giant clams reach up to four per square foot in parts of the lagoon. The most common species is the “small giant clam” Tridacna maxima and largest clam species, Tridacna gigas is also found in the lagoon.</p><br>
<p>The lagoon is a nursery habitat for many fish species including important and heavily exploited species such as the Blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) and the endangered Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus).</p><br>
<p>There is no standing fresh water on Caroline Island, although the Nake and South Islets harbor underground freshwater aquifers (or Ghyben-Herzberg lenses), and wells have been built to tap drinking water for temporary settlements. Soils on Caroline are similarly poor, dominated by coral gravel and sand, with significant organic content present only within stable, forested island centers. Guano deposits make island soil, where it does exist, nitrogen-rich; but even in the oldest and most vegetated regions of the atoll, soils are only a few centimeters (one or two inches) thick.</p><br>
<p>Like the rest of Kiribati, Caroline Island enjoys a tropical maritime climate which is consistently hot and humid. Meteorological records are sparse, but temperatures generally range between 28 and 32 degrees Celsius (82 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit) year round. Caroline lies within a region of highly variable precipitation, but is estimated to receive an average of 1,500 mm of rain annually. Tides are on the order of 0.5 m and trade winds, generally from the northeast, mean that corner of the island experiences the roughest seas.</p><br>
<p>Caroline Island is among the most remote islands on earth&ndash;230 km from the closest land at Flint Island, 1,500 km from the nearest permanent settlement on Kiritimati, 4,200 km from the Kiribati capital of Tarawa, and 5,100 km from the nearest continental land in North America.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Despite more than three centuries of occasional human impact on Caroline, it is considered to be one of very few remaining near-pristine tropical islands, Its relatively undisturbed state has led to Caroline being considered for designation as a World Heritage Site and as a Biosphere Reserve. Ecological surveys documenting the island&#39;s flora and fauna have been made intermittently through the later 20th century: Caroline was visited in 1965 by the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, in 1974 by the Line Island Expedition, and in 1988 and 1991 by the United Nations Environment Programme Wildlife Conservation Unit.</p><br>
<p>Caroline Island is heavily vegetated, and most islets possess three ringed zones of vegetation: an outermost herb mat, typically composed mainly of Heliotropium anomalum; an inward zone of shrub, primarily Heliotropium foertherianum; and a central forested region, typically dominated by groves of Pisonia grandis trees. Coconut palms have also been introduced and exist in substantial quantities on the larger islets. This pattern of vegetation is consistent across the larger islets, with smaller islets lacking the central forest and the smallest vegetated solely by low herbs.</p><br>
<p>Caroline Island is an important breeding site for a number of species of seabirds, most notably the sooty tern (Onychoprion fuscata), numbering around 500,000 &ndash; a colony of sooty terns dominates the eastern islets &ndash; and the great frigatebird (Fregata minor), numbering over 10,000. Caroline Island and its neighbor, Flint Island, also host some of the world&#39;s largest populations of the coconut crab. (Birgus latro). Other native animals include the Tridacna clam, which is abundant in the central lagoon, hermit crabs, and multiple species of lizards.</p><br>
<p>The endangered green turtle (Chelonia mydas) nests on the beaches of Caroline Island, but there have been reports of poaching by recent homesteaders. The bristle-thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis), a migrant visitor from Alaska, is also classified as vulnerable.</p><br>
<p>Around twenty non-native species of flora have been introduced to Caroline Island via human contact. Among these are the vine Ipomoea violacea, which has begun to proliferate. Domestic cats and dogs introduced alongside a small homestead have driven the seabird population away from the islet of Monu Ata-Ata.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Caroline Island is believed to have originated from a volcanic hotspot which eroded and then became home to a coral reef which grew above the ocean surface. Although these geological processes are poorly understood, the orientation of the Line Islands (roughly north-south) suggests that they were formed more than 40 million years ago, before the Pacific Plate changed its direction of travel. The same hotspot more recently gave rise to the Tuamotu Archipelago.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence of settlement by Polynesian peoples on the largest islets from before European contact. Graves and template platforms were uncovered by early expeditions to the island, and a large marae exists on the west side of Nake Islet. To date, these artifacts have not been surveyed by archaeologists.</p><br>
<h3>Early sightings and accounts</h3><br>
<p>Ferdinand Magellan may have sighted Caroline Island on February 4, 1521.</p><br>
<p>The next recorded sighting of Caroline Island by Europeans was on February 21, 1606, by Pedro Fernández de Quirós, a Portuguese explorer sailing on behalf of Spain; his account names the island "San Bernardo." The atoll was "rediscovered" on December 16, 1795 by Captain William Robert Broughton of , who gave the atoll the name Carolina (which later became Caroline) "in compliment to the daughter of Sir P. Stephens of the Admiralty." Caroline was again sighted in 1821 by the English whaling ship Supply and was then named "Thornton Island" for the ship&#39;s captain. Other early names for the atoll include Hirst Island, Clark Island, and Independence Island. Among other early visits which left behind accounts of the island are that of the USS Dolphin in 1825 (recorded by Lieutenant Hiram Paulding), and of a whaling ship in 1835 (recorded by Frederick Debell Bennett in his Narrative of a Whaling Voyage Round the Globe From the Year 1833–1836).</p><br>
<p>In 1846, the Tahitian firm of Collie and Lucett attempted to establish a small stock-raising and copra (coconut meat) community on the island, an operation which met with limited financial success. In 1868, Caroline was claimed by the British vessel HMS Reindeer, which noted 27 residents in a settlement on South Islet. In 1872, the island was leased by the British government to Houlder Brothers and Co., with John T. Arundel as the manager (for whom one of the islets is named) John T. Arundel and Co. took over the lease in 1881. In 1885 Arundel established a coconut plantation, however the coconut palms suffered from disease and the plantation failed. The settlement on the island lasted until 1904, when the six remaining Polynesians were relocated to Niue.</p><br>
<p>Houlder Brothers and Co., under the management of Arundel, also conducted minimal guano mining on the island from 1874. In 1881, Arundel also took over the guano mining, which supplied a total of about 10,000 tons of phosphate until supplies were exhausted around 1895.</p><br>
<p>In 1883, an expedition of American astronomers traveled from Peru to Caroline Island aboard the to observe a total solar eclipse on May 6. A French expedition also observed the eclipse from Caroline, and the United States Navy mapped the atoll.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Leased to S.R. Maxwell and Company, a new settlement was established in 1916, this time built entirely upon copra export. Much of the South islet was deforested to make way for coconut palms, a non-indigenous plant. The business venture, however, went into debt, and the island&#39;s settlement slowly decreased in population. By 1926, it was down to only ten residents and by 1936, the settlement consisted of only two Tahitian families before abandonment sometime in the late 1930s.</p><br>
<p>Caroline Island remained uninhabited and undisturbed through World War II and afterwards. It remained under British jurisdiction, repossessed by the British Western Pacific High Commission in 1943 and governed as part of the Central and Southern Line Islands. In January 1972, the Central and Southern Line Islands, including Caroline, were joined with the British colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, which had become autonomous in 1971 as part of British decolonization efforts.</p><br>
<p>In 1979, the Gilbert Islands became the independent nation of Kiribati; Caroline Island is Kiribati&#39;s easternmost point. The entire island is owned by the government of the Republic of Kiribati, overseen by the Ministry of Line and Phoenix Groups, which is headquartered on Kiritimati. Competing claims to sovereignty over the island by the United States (under the Guano Islands Act) were relinquished in the 1979 Treaty of Tarawa, ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1983.</p><br>
<p>The island was briefly inhabited again from 1987 to 1991 by Ron Falconer, his wife Anne, and their two children, who developed a largely self-sufficient settlement on the atoll. Following a transfer of ownership, Falconer was evicted from the island by the Kiribati government. A book, Together Alone , written by Falconer, documents the story of their residence on Caroline Island.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s, the island was leased to Urima Felix, a French Polynesian entrepreneur; he established a small homestead on one of the islets and reportedly had plans for development of the atoll. The island is also occasionally visited by Polynesian copra gatherers under agreements with the Kiribati government in Tarawa.</p><br>
<h3>Time zone realignment</h3><br>
<p>On December 23, 1994, the Republic of Kiribati announced a change of time zone for the Line Islands, to take effect January 1, 1995. This adjustment effectively moved the International Date Line over 1,000 km to the east within Kiribati, placing all of Kiribati on the Asian or western side of the date line, despite the fact that Caroline&#39;s longitude of 150 degrees west corresponds to UTC−10 rather than its official time zone of UTC+14. Caroline Island now is at the same time as the Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone), but one day ahead. This move made Caroline Island both the easternmost land in the earliest time zone (by some definitions, the easternmost point on Earth), and one of the first points of land which would see sunrise on January 1, 2000 — at 5:43 a.m., as measured by local time.</p><br>
<p>The stated reason for the move was a campaign promise of Kiribati President Teburoro Tito to eliminate the confusion of Kiribati straddling the Date Line and therefore being constantly in two different days. However, Kiribati officials were not reluctant to attempt to capitalize on the nation&#39;s new status as owners of the first land to see sunrise in 2000. Other Pacific nations, including Tonga and New Zealand&#39;s Chatham Islands, protested the move, objecting that it infringed on their claims to be the first land to see dawn in the year 2000.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, in order to further capitalize upon the massive public interest in celebrations marking the arrival of the year 2000, Caroline Island was officially renamed Millennium Island. Although uninhabited, a special celebration was held on the island, featuring performances by Kiribati native entertainers and attended by Kiribati president Tito. Over 70 Kiribati singers and dancers traveled to Caroline from the capital Tarawa, accompanied by approximately 25 journalists. The celebration, broadcast by satellite worldwide, had an estimated audience of up to one billion viewers.</p><br>
<p>Despite many media and government claims to the contrary, Caroline Island was not the first point of land to see sunrise on January 1, 2000 (local time); that distinction belongs to a point of land between Dibble Glacier and Victor Bay on the coast of East Antarctica, at {{coord|66|03|S|135|53|E|}}, where the sun rose 35 minutes earlier. As this point is close to the Antarctic Circle, and the area beyond the Antarctic Circle is affected by the continuous sunlight in December, the definition of the exact point becomes a question of distinguishing between a sunset and an immediate sunrise in view of atmospheric refraction effects.</p><br>
<h3>21st century and future</h3><br>
<p>As Caroline Island only extends six meters above sea level, it would be in danger if sea levels rise. The Kiribati government estimates that the island may be reclaimed by the sea as soon as 2025,</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<p>Rongelap Atoll  is a coral atoll of 61 islands  in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is 8 square miles. It encloses a lagoon with an area of 1,000 square miles. It is historically notable for its close proximity to US hydrogen bomb tests in 1954, and was particularly devastated by fallout from the Castle Bravo test. Twenty people remain from the more than 300 who lived there prior to the test.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first sighting recorded by Europeans was by Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on 1 January 1528. Together with Utirik, Ailinginae and Toke atolls, they were charted as Islas de los Reyes (Islands of the Three Wise Kings in Spanish) due to the proximity of Epiphany. Fourteen years later it was visited by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos.</p><br>
<p>Rongelap Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. Following the end of World War II, Rongelap came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.</p><br>
<h2>Nuclear testing impact</h2><br>
<h3>Time Line</h3><br>
<p>1946: United States Navy evacuates Bikini Atoll Islanders prior to nuclear weapons tests.</p><br>
<p>March 1, 1954: United States detonates 15-megaton hydrogen bomb (Castle Bravo test) unaware that fallout will reach Rongelap.</p><br>
<p>March 3, 1954: US evacuates Rongelap inhabitants to Kwajalein Atoll. Islanders have vomiting, diarrhea, skin burns, and some later experience hair loss.</p><br>
<p>1955-1957: Internally displaced Rongelapese inhabitants repeatedly request permission from the US Government to return to their atoll.</p><br>
<p>1957: Atomic Energy Commission declares Rongelap safe for re-habitation. US scientists note: "The habitation of these people on the island will afford most valuable ecological radiation data on human beings."</p><br>
<p>1958: Rates of Rongelap miscarriages and stillbirths twice the rate of unexposed women.</p><br>
<p>1963: First thyroid tumors begin to appear.</p><br>
<p>1971: Independent Japanese medical team invited by Rongelap magistrate denied permission to visit by US citing "visa problems."</p><br>
<p>1976: Report finds 69% of Rongelap children who were under 10 in 1954 have developed thyroid tumors.</p><br>
<p>1984: Marshall Islands senator Jeton Anjain requests evacuation assistance from Greenpeace.</p><br>
<p>1985: Rainbow Warrior makes three trips to evacuate the Rongelap community to Majetto and Ebeye islands in Kwajalein Atoll.</p><br>
<p>1986: Nuclear test compensation approved, setting aside a $US150 million trust fund.</p><br>
<p>1989: United States Department of Energy determines Rongelap safe for habitation.</p><br>
<p>1994: Independent scientific study finds that depending on dietary restrictions, 25 to 75% of Rongelap population would exceed the 100 mrem maximum annual exposure limit set.</p><br>
<p>2000: Marshall Islands government submits Change of Circumstances petition asking for significantly more compensation than the $US150m.</p><br>
<p>2005: Bush Administration determines it has no legal responsibility to provide additional nuclear test compensation.</p><br>
<p>2007: The Nuclear Claims Tribunal awards Rongelap more than $1 billion as fair damages for its land damage claim, however, since the $US150m trust fund is almost completely depleted this compensation can never be paid.</p><br>
<p>2009: United States government reasserts its position that it has satisfactorily compensated Rongelap victims.</p><br>
<h3>The Tests</h3><br>
<p>From 1946 through 1958 the United States military conducted numerous atmospheric nuclear weapons tests, including hydrogen bomb tests, primarily at Bikini Atoll, about 120 km from Rongelap Atoll. On March 1, 1954, the testing of the Castle Bravo hydrogen device produced an explosion that was 2½ times more powerful than predicted, and produced unexpected amounts of fallout that resulted in widespread radioactive contamination. The blast cloud contaminated more than 7,000 square miles of the surrounding Pacific Ocean including some of the then inhabited surrounding islands including Rongerik Atoll, Rongelap Atoll (120 km away) and Utirik Atoll.</p><br>
<p>Irradiated debris fell up to 2 cm deep over the island. A United States military medical team visited the island with geiger counters the day after the fallout, but left without telling the islanders of the danger they had been exposed to. Virtually all the inhabitants experienced severe radiation sickness, including itchiness, sore skin, vomiting, diarrhea, and fatigue. Their symptoms also included burning eyes and swelling of the neck, arms, and legs. The inhabitants were forced to abandon the islands, leaving all their belongings, three days after the test. They were relocated to Kwajalein for medical treatment. Six days after the Castle Bravo test, the U.S government set up a secret project to study the medical effects of the weapon on the residents of the Marshall Islands.</p><br>
<p>The United States was subsequently accused of having used the inhabitants in medical research (without receiving consent) to study the effects of nuclear exposure. Until that time, the United States Atomic Energy Commission had given little thought to the potential impact of widespread fallout contamination and health and ecological impacts beyond the formally designated boundary of the test site.</p><br>
<h3>Failed return to the atoll</h3><br>
<p>In 1957, three years later, the United States government declared the area clean and safe and allowed the islanders to return, though they were told to stick to canned foods and avoid the northern islets of the atoll. Evidence of continued contamination mounted, however, as many residents developed thyroid-tumors, and many children died of leukemia. The magistrate of Rongelap, John Anjain, whose own son died of leukemia, appealed for international help, without significant response.</p><br>
<h3>Relocated by Greenpeace</h3><br>
<p>In 1984, Marshall Islands senator, Jeton Anjain approached the environmental group Greenpeace to seek their help in relocating the people of Rongelap and in 1985, Operation Exodus took place. In three trips, the Rainbow Warrior moved approximately 350 people and 100 t of building material. to the islets of Mejato and Ebeye on Kwajalein atoll, approximately 180 km away. The operation took 11 days, moving everyone from 80-year-olds to newborns, their homes and their belongings. Ebeye is significantly smaller than the islands of Rongelap, and joblessness, suicide, and overcrowding have proven to be problems following the resettlement.</p><br>
<h3>Compensation awarded</h3><br>
<p>In September 1996, the United States Department of the Interior signed a $45 million resettlement agreement with the islanders, stipulating that the islanders themselves will scrape off a few inches of Rongelap&#39;s still contaminated surface. However, this is an operation deemed impossible by some critics. In recent years, James Matayoshi, the mayor of Rongelap, claimed that the cleanup was successful and envisioned a new promising future for the inhabitants and for tourists. Scientific measurements made in August of 2014 verified a safe level of radiation on Rongelap.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Mike Harding&#39;s 1989 folk protest song Shaky Isles mentions the fate of the atoll in the lines "Black mist on Maralinga, grey snow on Rongelap, white sun under Mururoa. Whitewash to cover the cracks.".</p><br>
<p>The Harney Basin is an endorheic basin in southeastern Oregon in the United States at the northwestern corner of the Great Basin. One of the least populated areas of the contiguous United States, it is located largely in northern Harney County, bounded on the north and east by the Columbia Plateau—within which it is contained, physiographically speaking—and on the south and west by a volcanic plain. The basin encompasses an area of 1,490 square miles in the watershed of Malheur Lake and Harney Lake. Malheur Lake is a freshwater lake, while Harney Lake is saline-alkaline.</p><br>
<p>The basin is bounded on the north by the southern end of the Blue Mountains. The ridge of Steens Mountain separates the basin from the watershed of the Alvord Desert to the southeast. No streams cross the volcanic plains that separate the basin from the watershed of the Klamath River to the southwest. The basin includes archeological sites of the Drewsey Resource Area.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The central basin receives an average of 6 in of rain per year, with the surrounding mountains receiving an average of 15 in per year. The center of the basin is flat and contains Malheur and Harney lakes, which receive the streams originating within the basin in the surrounding mountains, including the Silvies River from the north and the Donner und Blitzen River from the south. Harney Lake is the actual sink of the basin, connected in some years to Malheur Lake but currently separated by constantly changing sand dunes. Both lakes cycle between open water in wetter years and marshes in drier years. The wetlands around Malheur Lake and Harney Lake form a wetlands oasis in the basin, providing a habitat for many migratory bird species, including 2.5 million ducks each year. Malheur Lake and its surroundings are embraced by Malheur National Wildlife Refuge.</p><br>
<p>Harney County, Oregon, had a total population of 7,422 at the 2010 census, and Burns in the plain north of Malheur Lake is the only community with a population larger than 1,000. Dryland ranching is the basis of the area&#39;s economy, with relatively little irrigation water available from the streams that enter Malheur Lake.</p><br>
<h3>Harney Basin Volcanic Field</h3><br>
<p>The Harney Basin Volcanic Field is a series of volcanic flows of rhyolite and of tuffs of ash flows in around Burns, Oregon. The field is within the High Lava Plains Province.</p><br>
<h3>Harney-Malheur Lakes watershed</h3><br>
<p>The Harney-Malheur Lakes watershed is a 1,420 square miles Great Basin watershed. The adjacent Donner und Blitzen River watershed of 765 square miles discharges into Malheur Lake and includes the river portion of the 292 square miles Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. "Alkali Field is located directly south of Malheur Lake, a few kilometers east of the Donner und Blitzen River."</p><br>
<p>The High Desert Wetlands ecoregion is a set of Northern Basin and Range wetlands with 1,651 square miles in Oregon, including a large area around Harney and Malheur Lakes.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The basin was formed approximately 32,000 years ago when lava flows formed the Malheur Gap, separating the watershed of the basin from the Malheur River, a tributary of the Snake River. Archaeological evidence indicates the basin was inhabited as early as 10,000 years ago. Pollen records indicate that the climate, especially the level of rain and snowfall, has varied greatly since the end of the Pleistocene. Evidence of prehistoric fishing techniques is found at several sites. Evidence suggests that there existed in the basin several species—in particular the chiselmouth, coarse-scale suckers, and northern squawfish—that are currently found only in the Columbia River basin, indicating that at some point the Harney Basin may have been connected to the Columbia. During wetter years, the lake level of Malheur Lake was raised to a depth of 25 ft, allowing the lakes to drain over the Malheur Gap. In modern times, however, the lake level does not rise above 10 ft in the wettest years.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century the basin was inhabited by the Northern Paiute tribe. It was explored and extensively trapped by trappers of the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company in the 1820s. The basin lay far off the route of the Oregon Trail, but in 1845 experienced mountain man Stephen Meek led an ill-fated party across the basin via Stinkingwater Pass, seeking a shortcut to The Dalles along what has become known as the Meek Cutoff. A total of 23 people died while the party wandered in the basin until finding water at the Crooked River.</p><br>
<p>Because of its climate it received sparse white settlement and was largely left to the Paiute until the late 19th century. Settlement pressures and conflicts with the Paiute in other areas of Oregon caused President Ulysses S. Grant in 1872 to create a reservation for the Paiute encompassing Malheur Lake and much of the basin. Growing settlement pressures, in particular the discovery of gold in the surrounding mountains, as well as the interest of white settlers to form ranches in the region, caused the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to abruptly terminate the reservation in 1879. The Northern Paiute would survive virtually landless until obtaining tracts of land near Burns in 1935.</p><br>
<p>Dellen is a lake system in the province of Hälsingland, Sweden. It consists of two lakes, Northern Dellen and Southern Dellen, appreciated among fly-fishermen for their distinct population of brown trout.</p><br>
<p>Southern Dellen has a surface area of 52 km² and a water volume of 1,226 million m³.</p><br>
<p>Northern Dellen has an area of 82 km² and a water volume of 1,489 million m³.</p><br>
<p>The two lakes are only united by a short channel, and it is therefore disputed whether they should be counted as one or two lakes. If counted together, it would have a total area of 130 km², making it the 18th largest Swedish lake.</p><br>
<p>The vaguely circular lake system was formed by an impact crater 89 million years ago, placing the impact in the Late Cretaceous. The resulting impact crater measures about 19 kilometers in diameter. It has resulted in the area containing the rock Dellenite (a rock intermediate in composition between Rhyolite and Dacite), which has become the provincial rock.</p><br>
<p>Asteroid 7704 Dellen was named after it.</p><br>
<p>An installation of the Sweden Solar System representing Pluto and Charon lies near the southern lake; the pillars holding the model objects are made of dellenite.</p><br>
<p>Iso-Naakkima is a lake in Southern Savonia, Finland, about 10 km south of the town of Pieksämäki. It is notable for having an eroded impact crater under the northwestern part of the lake. It is one of the oldest known, about 1200 million years old . Of the known craters older than a billion years old, it is also one of the smallest being only 3 km in diameter.</p><br>
<p>At the time of the impact event, the continent of Baltica (modern northeastern Europe) was located near the equator. The crater is filled by recent (Quaternary) sediments and is not visible to the surface. Its existence was revealed by strikingly circular geophysical anomalies which are concentrated in a region 3 km in diameter; the actual remnant is about 2 km wide and 160 m deep. Its existence was later confirmed by drilling results. The discovery was made in 1989 and therefore Iso-Naakkima is the fourth known impact structure in Finland.</p><br>
<p>Karakul, Qarokul  is a 25 km diameter lake within a 52 km impact crater. It is located in the Tajik National Park in the Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan.</p><br>
<h2>Impact crater</h2><br>
<p>Karakul lies within a circular depression interpreted as an impact crater with a rim diameter of 52 km. The Earth Impact Database (EID) also lists it as younger than 5 Ma, or during the Pliocene.</p><br>
<p>The Karakul impact structure was first identified around 1987 through studies of imagery taken from space.</p><br>
<h2>Lake description</h2><br>
<p>The lake was formerly known as Lake Victoria, named after Queen Victoria by the British cartographers/military geographers. It was marked as such by most maps of the area until the 1920s when a Kyrgyz name: Karakul, or the Black Lake, replaced the British name by the new Soviet cartographers.</p><br>
<p>The lake/crater lies at an elevation of 3,960 m above mean sea level. A peninsula projecting from the south shore and an island off the north shore divide the lake into two basins: a smaller, relatively shallow eastern one, between 13 to 19 m deep, and a larger western one, 221 to 230 m deep. It is endorheic (lacking a drainage outlet) and the water is brackish. There is a small village with the same name on the eastern shore of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>Although the lake lies within a national park, much of the surroundings are used as pasture. The lake, with its islands, marshes, wet meadows, peat bogs, and pebbly and sandy plains, has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it supports significant numbers of the populations of various bird species, either as residents, or as breeding or passage migrants. These include bar-headed geese, ruddy shelducks, common mergansers, saker falcons, Himalayan vultures, lesser sand plovers, brown-headed gulls, Tibetan sandgrouse, yellow-billed choughs, Himalayan rubythroats, white-winged redstarts, white-winged snowfinches, rufous-streaked accentors, brown accentors, black-headed mountain-finches and Caucasian great rosefinches. The lake&#39;s islands are the main places where waterbirds rest and nest. The only fish in the lake is a species of stone loach.</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>Higher than Lake Titicaca, Karakul hosted the Roof of the World Regatta for the first time in September 2014. This replaced the Alpine Bank Dillon Open, held on the Dillon Reservoir in Summit County, Colorado, as the highest sailing regatta in the world.</p><br>
<p>Photo: Erik V. Pedersen, 1989</p><br>
<p>Sprogø is a small, protected Danish island, which is located in the Great Belt, the strait that separates the main islands of Funen and Zealand. It lies about halfway across the strait, 6.7 km from the Zealand shore and 8 km from the Funen shore.</p><br>
<p>Although sprog is modern Danish for speech, the islands name was originally recorded in the 12th century as Sproøe meaning scouts island, from the old Danish verb spro (to scout).</p><br>
<p>Today, the island forms part of the Great Belt fixed link, and is connected to Funen by a road and rail bridge, and to Zealand by both a road suspension bridge and twin rail tunnels. The island is crossed when using the link. During the construction, the island was drastically remodelled, with land reclamation increasing its area from 38 to 154 hectares.</p><br>
<p>There are remains of buildings on the original part of Sprogø from the beginning of the 12th century, a fortress built under king Valdemar the Great. During construction work, extensive archaeological investigations were undertaken, and among other findings it was revealed that the first inhabitants arrived more than 8,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The island has no permanent population today, but is used by Sund og Bælt, the company that owns and operates the bridges. It is also a nature reserve, and tours of the island are organised.</p><br>
<p>A darker part of the island&#39;s history are the years between 1923 and 1959, when the island was used for containment of women deemed pathologically promiscuous, the main concern being unwanted pregnancies. At the time it was considered a very humane approach, given the fact that they had previously been confined.</p><br>
<p>Sprogø was a station for the semaphore line across the Belt, Storebæltstelegrafen, between Nyborg and Korsør, in operation between 1801 and 1865.</p><br>
<p>The lighthouse, which can be seen in the picture, was built by the mail service in 1868, replacing an older structure from 1809. It was built on the foundations of the 12th-century fortress.</p><br>
<p>Karikkoselkä is a lake formed in an impact crater in Petäjävesi, Finland. Karikkoselkä is located approximately 30 km east from the centre of Keurusselkä, a much older and larger impact crater. Most lakes in the region are elongated in northwest-southeast direction due to glaciation, but Karikkoselkä is strikingly round.</p><br>
<p>Many shatter cones, rock formations that form under the extreme pressures of impact, have been found around the lake. Further evidence comes from aeromagnetic maps, which show a clear magnetic anomaly in the impact crater area. In addition, samples collected from deep drillings into the lake bottom confirm the impact origin of the structure.</p><br>
<p>The crater is the smallest identified in Finland, 1.4 km diameter and 150 m deep. Due to sediments the lake has a maximum depth of 26m which is unusually deep for a lake in the region. Karikkoselkä is estimated to be between 230 Ma and 450 Ma (million years old), most likely near 240 Ma (Triassic or earlier). which is likely a misquotation – the discovery paper mentions that the bedrock in the region (known as the Central Finland Granite Complex) formed about 1.88 Ga (thousand million years ago), in the late Paleoproterozoic era.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence of a neolithic settlement on the southern shore of the lake. According to a plate erected there no excavations have yet been conducted and the age of the settlement remains unknown.</p><br>
<p>Keurusselkä is a lake in Central Finland between the towns of Keuruu to the north and Mänttä to the south. It covers an area of 117.3 km&sup2;. Its average depth is 6.4 m with a maximum depth of 40 m. The surface lies at 105.4 m above sea level. The lake is 27 km long and is a part of the Kokemäenjoki water system. Keurusselkä gained international publicity in 2004 when a pair of amateur geologists uncovered an ancient impact crater on the western shore of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental issues</h2><br>
<p>In 1986, the Keurusselkä region was heavily contaminated (70 kBq/m²) by radioactive caesium, , from the Chernobyl disaster fallout. In 2003, some fish near Mänttä still had caesium concentrations several times higher than in Olkiluoto and Loviisa, which host the nuclear plants of Finland. This is due to the difference between the uptake of caesium in fresh water and brackish or saline water. However, the concentration levels are so small that eating the fish is not considered a health risk.</p><br>
<p>Apart from radioactivity, the water quality is also weakened by humic substances and local sewage. Despite that, the water quality is generally good, and the central part of the lake is in almost pristine condition.</p><br>
<h2>Keurusselkä impact structure</h2><br>
<p>Keurusselkä covers an ancient impact crater remnant, which was discovered in 2003 by amateur geologists.</p><br>
<p>Argon-argon dating of a pseudotachylitic breccia from the central uplift of the Keurusselkä impact structure yielded a late Mesoproterozoic age of 1.14-1.15 Ga (thousand million years) for the impact., which makes Keurusselkä one of the oldest impact structures known in Europe. The age of the local granite bedrock of the Central Finland Granite Complex is 1.88 Ga (Paleoproterozoic). Since the impact, 7–8 km of rock has eroded away, leaving no visible depressions (compare, in contrast, Iso-Naakkima, Lumparn).</p><br>
<p>Sparse gravity data shows a negative anomaly (an area of lower gravity) in the area of the impact structure. However, there are other negative gravity anomalies nearby which are not believed to be related to the impact event. In addition, there are less dense felsic rocks in the western shore of the lake, which can contribute to the gravity low. The anomaly will be mapped in a much greater detail to determine if it is related to the impact event.</p><br>
<p>Airborne magnetic data show a strikingly circular magnetic anomaly, but for a reason not yet known it is slightly east from the gravity low area as well as the region where the shatter cones are found. It is possible that the ring was created for example by a granitic intrusion instead of the impact event. No specific anomalies have been found from radiometric or electromagnetic data. Paleomagnetic data will be collected to define the age of the structure.</p><br>
<p>Only some 30 km east from the centre of the Keurusselkä impact structure is Karikkoselkä, a much smaller and younger impact crater. Ukonselkä, a roughly circular lake immediately west from Keurusselkä, is listed in the Impact Field Studies Group&#39;s Impact Database and University of New Brunswick&#39;s Earth Impact Database.</p><br>
<p>Lappajärvi is a lake in Finland, in the municipalities of Lappajärvi, Alajärvi and Vimpeli. It is formed in a 23 km wide, partly eroded meteorite impact crater. The lake is part of Ähtävänjoki  basin together with Lake Evijärvi that is located downstream  of it.</p><br>
<p>The Lappajärvi impact structure is estimated to be 76.20 ± 0.29 million years old (Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous time period). Experts working on Finland&#39;s Olkiluoto nuclear waste repository project have studied Lake Lappajärvi to help them project how Finnish landscapes might look one million years in the future and beyond.</p><br>
<p>An island in the middle of the lake, Kärnänsaari (Kärnä Island), gives the name to the black impact melt rock (impactite) found there, locally called kärnäite.</p><br>
<p>The towns on the shore are Lappajärvi and Vimpeli. Although not very near any, the nearest major city is Seinäjoki.</p><br>
<p>Kabru is a mountain in the Himalayas on the border of eastern Nepal and India. It is part of a ridge that extends south from Kangchenjunga and is the southernmost 7,000 m peak in the world.</p><br>
<p>The main features of this ridge are as follows (north to south):</p><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga south top, 8476 m, at 27&deg;41&prime;30&Prime;N latitude, 88&deg;09&prime;15&Prime;E longitude</p><br>
<p>A 6600–6700 m saddle, located at 27&deg;39&prime;51&Prime;N latitude, 88&deg;09&prime;39&Prime;E longitude</p><br>
<p>A 7349 m summit, known as Talung, at 27&deg;39&prime;18&Prime;N latitude, 88&deg;07&prime;51&Prime;E longitude</p><br>
<p>A 6983 m saddle, at 27&deg;38&prime;51&Prime;N latitude, 88&deg;07&prime;21&Prime;E longitude</p><br>
<p>A 7412 m summit, at 27&deg;38&prime;06&Prime;N latitude, 88&deg;07&prime;06&Prime;E longitude. This point has sufficient prominence to be classified as the highest point of a separate mountain, according to the definition used in List of highest mountains. It is confusingly referred to by some authorities as "Kabru IV", but it is not clear that this is correct, or that any "Kabru" name is correctly applied to this summit.</p><br>
<p>A substantial "field of firn" measuring about 2 km from north to south, and 1 km from east to west. This is almost entirely over 7200 m, and the watershed divide that runs through this field does not drop below this height.</p><br>
<p>A 7338 m summit, at ca. 27&deg;37&prime;09&Prime;N latitude, 88&deg;07&prime;28&Prime;E longitude, at the eastern boundary of the field of firn. This point is known as Kabru North. Although it is lower than the 7412 m summit, it has been at times considered to be Kabru&#39;s highest point, with the higher summit considered to be an unnamed summit along the ridge to Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>An intervening c.7200 m saddle</p><br>
<p>A 7318 m summit, at 27&deg;36&prime;30&Prime;N latitude, 88&deg;06&prime;42&Prime;E longitude, known as Kabru South is the southernmost "7000 m peak" in the world.</p><br>
<p>To the south west of Kabru south, there is a 6400 m saddle and a 6682 m summit known as Rathong. To its south east is the 6600 m Kabru Dome.</p><br>
<h2>Mountaineering</h2><br>
<p>The 7338 m summit of Kabru is the site of a mountaineering altitude record, either in 1883 or in 1905. The English barrister William Graham, the Swiss hotelier Emil Boss and the Swiss mountain guide Ulrich Kauffmann reported to have reached a point 30-40 feet below this summit, which Graham described as "little more than a pillar of ice", at 2pm on October 8, 1883. The ascent was questioned by powerful members of the Alpine Club and the Indian Survey Department, though not by their Himalayan climbing colleagues, and has been dismissed for most of the time since. Recent analysis suggests that the mountaineers may have been correct in their assertions after all. If Graham, Boss and Kaufmann did climb to ~7325 m on Kabru it was a remarkable achievement for its time, breaking the existing altitude record by at least 360 m (assuming a pre-Columbian ascent of Aconcagua) and holding on to it for twenty-six years (when in 1909 an expedition led by Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi reached about 7500 m on Chogolisa).</p><br>
<p>If their account is dismissed, the same peak nevertheless became the site of an undisputed altitude record on 20 October 1907, when the Norwegians Carl W. Rubenson and Monrad Aas came within 50 m of climbing it. Notably, Rubenson and Aas believed that Kauffmann, Boss and Graham had reached the same point 34 years before.</p><br>
<p>Kabru North was reached by C.R.Cooke on 18 November 1935, without oxygen. It remained the highest solo climb until 1953.</p><br>
<p>According to the 1996 version of the Himalayan Journal (pp. 29–36), members of an Indian Army expedition reached the summit of Kabru IV in May 1994.</p><br>
<p>Kabru South was also climbed by an Indian party in 1994.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, a group of Serbian climbers unsuccessfully attempted the mountain. A series of avalanches forced the group to give up their goal.</p><br>
<p>The north-northwest pillar of Talung was first climbed in 2015 by two Ukrainian climbers, Mikhail Fomin and Nikita Balabanov, who won the Piolet d&#39;Or for their climb. It was the fifth ascent of Talung.</p><br>
<p>Paasselkä  is an oval-shaped lake formed in an eroded impact crater in Southern Savonia, Finland. The lake, which is a part of Orivesi, which is in turn part of the Greater Saimaa, is devoid of islands which makes it different from other lakes in the region. Paasselkä is also unusually deep, 75 m at the deepest point.</p><br>
<p>The Paasselkä impact occurred about 231 million years ago (Carnian time stage of the Triassic) and affected Paleoproterozoic crystalline rocks and some overlying sandstones of the Baltic Shield. Because of the unusual shape and associated magnetic anomalies, Paasselkä was suspected to have an impact origin long until it was confirmed after a deep drilling in 1999 making it the ninth known impact crater in Finland. Unlike many Finnish craters, it does not seem to have been buried under layers of sediment.</p><br>
<h2>Light phenomenon</h2><br>
<p>Paasselän pirut, or Paasselkä devils, is a claimed will-o&#39;-the-wisp phenomenon which sometimes occurs at the lake and the marsh and forest area in the immediate vicinity. One has described the light as a ball that moves at different speeds, or are completely at rest, and sometimes there are several spheres. The phenomenon has been known for a long time, written down from the 18th century, and is part of the local folk tales, which have given the name "devils". The locals thought the shining spheres were created by evil beings. The magnetic anomalies in connection with the impact crater might be related to the phenomenon.</p><br>
<p>Saarijärvi is an impact structure mostly covered by a small lake by the same name. It is located about 40 km south from the town of Taivalkoski, Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland.</p><br>
<p>The impact origin of the structure was confirmed in 1997 when poorly developed planar deformation features (PDFs) in quartz grains were found in drill-core samples obtained from the bottom of the structure by a mining company while searching for diamonds in the region. Later an amateur geologist Jarmo Moilanen discovered also shatter cones within the impact structure. Saarijärvi is the only currently accepted impact structure in Fennoscandian Shield formed in Archean granitoid basement complex.</p><br>
<p>Most of the impact structure is filled by a sedimentary deposit, reaching a thickness of about 156 m in the center. It has a diameter of about 1.5 km, but shatter cones have been discovered in an area of about 2.2 km in diameter. The structure’s age has not been determined, but the oldest sediments from the drill-core are from Ediacaran period, i.e. about 600 Ma (million years) old. The upper part of the sedimentary crater-fill sequence includes also Cambrian microfossils. It is currently unclear whether or not at least some of the lowermost sediments are actually pre-impact in origin, while the upper part of the sequence may have been deposited after the impact. In any case it seems certain that the impact structure is younger than 1980 Ma (early Proterozoic), which is the age of the youngest metadolerite dikes in the region, apparently truncated by the Saarijärvi structure. Preliminary paleomagnetic measurements suggest an age of 1.2 Ga or 2.1 Ga (thousand million years), but these values are probably insignificant since the structure has been modified by tectonic processes. The cross-section of the structure is somewhat asymmetric with a deeper and steeper southern side compared to the northern one, which suggests tectonic modification rather than an oblique impact. An elongated island in the center of the structure also implies significant post-impact tectonic modification of the structure. Electromagnetic anomalies show that the Saarijärvi structure is slightly polygonal rather than actually circular. This is not uncommon for impact structures, and implies structural control (by pre-existing dominating fracture orientations in the target rock) during crater formation, although post-impact tectonic modification may also play a role.</p><br>
<p>Lake Wanapitei occupies a meteorite crater in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. It is located near the large Sudbury meteorite crater but they are not related.</p><br>
<p>The crater is 5.2 mi in diameter and the age is estimated to be 37.2 ± 1.2 million years, placing it in the Eocene.</p><br>
<p>It was evident by the mid-1970s that Wanapitei Lake was an impact crater. Remarkably, it lies on the eastern edge of the much older, larger Sudbury structure. Cobbles of suevite, crumbly impact breccia cobbles containing bits of dark glass, are found surrounding the lake. Some contain coesite, a high pressure mineral diagnostic of impact structures. The suevite is very close in appearance and composition to that described from the Ries impact crater.</p><br>
<p>The lake is a popular recreational and residential area in Sudbury, with the neighbourhoods of Skead and Bowland&#39;s Bay located on its shores. With the municipal amalgamation of Greater Sudbury in 2001, it became the largest lake in the world completely contained within the boundaries of a single city. It inherited this status from Lake Ramsey, also in Sudbury.</p><br>
<p>The Wanapitei River flows through the lake. Wanapitei Provincial Park is located on the north shore of Lake Wanapitei — this is a non-operating park so there are no facilities. The lake has a number of small islands within it. Named islands include Blueberry, Howie, Pirate Island, Wanapitei, MacLennan, and Bonanza. Some of the islands are unpopulated, although a few have recreational cottages located on them. The small Wahnapitae Ojibwe reserve is also located on the lake&#39;s northwestern shore.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s name comes from the Ojibwa word waanabidebiing, or "concave-tooth water", which describes its shape. A nearby community which takes its name from the river is spelled Wahnapitae. However, the Wanapitei spelling is correct for both the lake and the river.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pleasant is a neighborhood in the northwestern quadrant of Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The neighborhood is bounded by Rock Creek Park to the north and west; and Harvard Street, NW, and the Adams Morgan neighborhood to the south; and Sixteenth Street, NW, and the Columbia Heights neighborhood to the east. The neighborhood is home to about 10,000 people.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1727, Charles Calvert, 5th Lord Baltimore (then governor of the Maryland Colony) awarded a land grant for present-day Mount Pleasant to James Holmead. This estate included the territory of present-day Adams Morgan, Columbia Heights, and Pleasant Plains neighborhoods. Jamess son, Anthony, inherited the estate in 1750 and named it Pleasant Plains. After the United States Congress created the District of Columbia in 1791, Pleasant Plains estate became part of Washington County, a section of the District lying between what now is Florida Avenue and the Maryland border. The Holmeads gradually sold off all tracts of the Pleasant Plains estate. In the 21st century, the family name is preserved in Holmead Place, a short street located west of Thirteenth Street between Spring and Park Roads NW, in what now is Columbia Heights. During 1794 and 1796, Robert Peter, Georgetowns pioneer businessman, conducted title descriptions. He created maps for tracts of some of his land in Mount Pleasant for transactions with commissioners of the city.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War, New England native Samuel P. Brown purchased 73 acre of land between Fourteenth and Seventeenth Streets, NW. Brown built a house and allowed a wartime hospital to be constructed on his land. After the War, he began selling his land in parcels. He named the area Mount Pleasant Village because it contained the land having the highest elevation of the original Pleasant Plains estate. Brown sold all his land except for the parcel he retained around his house at 3351 Mount Pleasant Street, NW. His house was demolished in the 1890s.</p><br>
<p>Most of the original settlers built wooden frame houses and farmed their tracts, growing their own food. Stores and other businesses opened around what today is the intersection of Fourteenth Street and Park Road, NW. Settlers laid out early roads in the area, such as Adams Mill Road, Mount Pleasant Street, Newton Street, and Park Road to follow local custom and to accommodate local needs and land ownership. Although Mount Pleasant was within the District of Columbia, it was separated from the city of Washington by vacant land and was rural by comparison. Because of this separate development, the Mount Pleasant street grid is distinct from Washington&#39;s rectilinear grid. Now that the two are part of a single urban fabric, some of its streets appear to have been laid out haphazardly, with several intersecting city streets at odd or severe angles to the greater design.</p><br>
<p>In the 1870s, a horse-drawn streetcar began traveling between the Fourteenth and Park intersection to downtown Washington city, making this the first streetcar suburb in the District of Columbia. Mount Pleasant ceased to be an independent and separate place in 1878 after the city&#39;s boundaries became coterminous with those of the District. Mount Pleasant developed rapidly as a streetcar suburb after the opening of the mechanized streetcar line around 1900. In 1907, developer Fulton R. Gordon purchased large sections of the neighborhood, marketing lots as "Mount Pleasant Heights" with Robert E. Heater. Many houses and apartment buildings were constructed between 1900 and 1925. In 1925, the District built the Mount Pleasant Library, partially funded by philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, to serve the growing and affluent community.</p><br>
<p>The streets were lined with tall trees that created a continuous canopy of shade. Gardens of ivy, shrubs, and flowering plants were created in the successive terraces from the streets to the base of the stairs of the typical front porches. Landings in the staircases through the terraces were marked with fountains and sculpture. Houses were built next to each other as row houses. Alleys between all streets provided access for servants and services. Fences separated properties into back yards planted with vegetable gardens and fruit trees, and sites for barns and garages. Many houses were constructed with two levels of cellars below the entry level from the main street, but all having disguised access for landscape equipment through the cellars under the house. Rear sleeping porches extended from the floors with bedrooms.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pleasant was marketed to middle- to upper middle-class people. Actress Helen Hayes, Washington Senators pitcher Walter Johnson, and USA Senator Robert M. La Follette Sr. made their homes in Mount Pleasant.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood entered a period of transition in the 1960s. Mount Pleasant was racially segregated, as were most neighborhoods of Washington, D.C., at the time. This changed after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, although some neighborhoods remained de facto segregated. After an African American Howard University professor moved into a prestigious Park Road home, some white residents began to leave the neighborhood. This form of suburbanization, often referred to as White flight, increased after the 1968 riots, which caused widespread destruction along the commercial U Street NW corridor and other areas of the city. Gradually, as lower-income residents moved in and rented portions of rowhouses divided for multiple occupancy, some properties suffered neglect. Most of the characteristic landscaping was lost, including much of the canopy of shade trees.</p><br>
<p>As African Americans began to settle in Mount Pleasant, a new wave of immigrants from Central America came to the capital. Spanish-speaking immigrants began settling in Mount Pleasant in the 1960s, many from El Salvador and the Dominican Republic. Adams Morgan to the west already had a Latino population among its multi-racial residents, and they had developed businesses along Columbia Road and 18th Street that new immigrants found familiar. The new residents also developed businesses catering to Hispanics and Latinos along commercial portions of Mount Pleasant Street. The neighborhood also attracted former Peace Corps workers, who liked the diversity. Commercially developed Columbia Road extended from the Adams Morgan neighborhood to 16th Street. Businesses included grocery store and pharmacy, restaurants, low-priced retail stores and services.</p><br>
<p>Affluent professionals began returning to the neighborhood in the early 1980s. According to the Washingtonian magazine, housing prices rose nearly as fast as in any area of metropolitan Washington. The new residents renovated many homes, and some projects were featured in local and national magazines. A $1 million "green" renovation was featured in a National Public Radio story. The neighborhood was majority-minority in 1990, with African Americans making up 36% of the population, Latinos 26%, and whites 35%. More recent Asian immigrants also settled there. The students at the neighborhood public schools were primarily minority children.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, a black woman police officer shot a Latino man, leading to a multi-day riot. As a result, the Metropolitan Police Department, under then Chief Isaac Fulwood, and city government began an outreach effort to the Latino population. In the next two decades, demographics of the neighborhood changed markedly. As housing prices have gone up, given the strong economy of the District and many educated residents with high-paying jobs, some Latino immigrants and their descendants have moved to more affordable D.C. neighborhoods east of Mount Pleasant, as well as to more distant suburbs. African Americans have also left the neighborhood, to an even greater extent: some have moved to the South, in what the Brookings Institution defines as a New Great Migration, and some have moved to eastern neighborhoods in the District or to suburbs. According to the 2010 census, African Americans compose 19% of the population, the smallest of the three main ethnicities in the neighborhood. Their proportion of the population in the District overall has dropped during these two decades.</p><br>
<p>The western four-fifths of the Mount Pleasant area is a largely wooded residential enclave bounded on two sides by Rock Creek Park. Structures in this area are primarily row houses, with some subdivided into one or two apartments. A few of the original 19th-century wood-frame houses remain, mostly north of Park Road. The eastern border of Mount Pleasant, along Sixteenth and Mount Pleasant Streets, is marked by mid-rise apartment buildings. These buildings offer rental apartments, condominiums and cooperatives. A four-block commercial corridor with convenience shopping in the neighborhood extends along Mount Pleasant Street. In 2008, a large retail development was completed in Columbia Heights, the neighborhood just east of Mount Pleasant.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The population of Mount Pleasant, according to the 2010 census, was 10,459, down from 11,794 in 2000. Census data for 1990, 2000, and 2010 show the demographic changes underway in Mount Pleasant:</p><br>
<p>Also evident is the transition of this neighborhood from one of modest to fairly high incomes, an example of gentrification.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>District of Columbia Public Schools operates public schools.</p><br>
<p>Bancroft Elementary School</p><br>
<p>Private Religious Schools.</p><br>
<p>Sacred Heart School</p><br>
<p>District of Columbia Public Library operates the Mount Pleasant Neighborhood Library.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage Trail</h2><br>
<p>A series of "Heritage Trail" historical markers have been installed in Mt. Pleasant. The markers, which may be followed as a walking tour, consist of 17 poster-sized street signs featuring narrative, photographs and maps.</p><br>
<h3>Markers</h3><br>
<p>The markers are captioned as follows, at these locations:</p><br>
<p>Fashionable 16th Street (16th and Mt. Pleasant Streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>Upheaval and Activism (16th Street between Irving and Lamont Streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>Mount Pleasant Library (16th and Lamont Streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>Sacred Heart Academy (16th Street and Park Road, NW)</p><br>
<p>Avenue of Churches (16th and Newton Streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>Village Life (17th Street and Oakwood Terrace, NW)</p><br>
<p>Twenty-seven Little Flags (Newton and 18th Streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>The Oldest House (Newton Street between 18th and 19th streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>Czech Row (Park and Klingle Roads, NW)</p><br>
<p>Voices at Vespers (Rosemount Avenue and Klingle Road, NW)</p><br>
<p>Defying the Restrictive Covenants (Park Road between 18th and 19th streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>Changing Fashions (18th Street and Park Road, NW)</p><br>
<p>War and Peace (Triangle Park Park Road and Mt. Pleasant street, NW)</p><br>
<p>Main Street (North end of Lamont Park, NW)</p><br>
<p>Streetcar Suburb (Lamont and Mt. Pleasant Streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>The First Bodega (Mt. Pleasant Street at Kilbourne Place, NW)</p><br>
<p>The Urban Village (Mt. Pleasant and Kenyon Streets, NW)</p><br>
<p>Roseberry Topping is a distinctive hill in North Yorkshire, England. It is situated near Great Ayton and Newton under Roseberry. Its summit has a distinctive half-cone shape with a jagged cliff, which has led to many comparisons with the much higher Matterhorn in Switzerland. It forms a symbolic image of the area and featured as the logo for the now defunct county of Cleveland.</p><br>
<p>At 1,049 ft, Roseberry Topping was traditionally thought to be the highest hill on the North York Moors; however, the nearby Urra Moor is higher, at 1,490 ft. It offers views of Captain Cook&#39;s Monument at Easby Moor and the monument at Eston Nab.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The hill is an outlier of the North York Moors uplands. It is formed from sandstone laid down in the Middle and Lower Jurassic periods, between 208 and 165 million years ago, which constitutes the youngest sandstone to be found in any of the National Parks in England and Wales. Its distinctive conical shape is the result of the hill&#39;s hard sandstone cap protecting the underlying shales and clays from erosion by the effects of ice, wind and rain.</p><br>
<p>Until 1912, the summit resembled a sugarloaf until a geological fault and possibly nearby alum and ironstone mining caused its collapse. The area immediately below the summit is still extensively pitted and scarred from the former mineworks. The summit has magnificent views across the Cleveland plain as far as the Pennines on a clear day, some 40 to 50 miles (60 to 80 km) away.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Roseberry area has been inhabited for thousands of years and the hill has long attracted attention for its distinctive shape. A Bronze Age hoard was discovered on the slopes of the hill and is now in the Sheffield City Museum. It was occupied during the Iron Age; walled enclosures and the remains of huts dating from the period are still visible in the hill&#39;s vicinity.</p><br>
<p>The hill was perhaps held in special regard by the Vikings who settled in Cleveland during the early medieval period and gave the area many of its place names. They gave Roseberry Topping its present name: first attested in 1119 as Othenesberg, its second element is accepted to derive from Old Norse bjarg (rock); the first element must be an Old Norse personal name, Authunn or Óthinn, giving Authunns/Óthinns rock. If the latter, Roseberry Topping is one of only a handful of known pagan names in England, being named after the Norse god Odin and paralleled by the Old English name Wodnesberg, found for example in Woodnesborough. The name changed successively to Othensberg, Ohenseberg, Ounsberry and Ouesberry before finally settling on Roseberry. "Topping" is a Yorkshire dialectal derivation of Old English topp, top (of a hill). The naming of the hill may thus fit a well-established pattern in Continental Europe of hills and mountains being named after Odin or the Germanic equivalent, Wodan. Aelfric of Eynsham, writing in the 10th century, recorded how "the heathens made him into a celebrated god and made offerings to him at crossroads and brought oblations to high hills for him. This god was honoured among all heathens and he is called... Othon in Danish."</p><br>
<p>In 1736, the explorer James Cook&#39;s family moved to Airey Holme Farm at nearby Great Ayton. When he had time off from working on the farm with his father, young James would take himself off up Roseberry Topping, which gave him his first taste for adventure and exploration, which was to stay with him for life.</p><br>
<p>Roseberry Topping can be seen from many miles away and was long used by sailors and farmers as an indicator of impending bad weather. An old rhyme commemorates this usage:</p><br>
<p>The hill was private property for many years, formerly being part of a game estate owned by the Cressy family. In the early 18th century, Dorothea Cressy married Archibald Primrose, who was later made Earl of Rosebery. Roseberry Topping is now managed by the National Trust and is open to the public. It is just within the North York Moors National Park whose border runs along the A173 road below it.</p><br>
<p>A spur of the Cleveland Way National Trail runs up to the summit. The path has been a popular sight-seeing excursion for centuries due to the spectacular views of the Cleveland area from the summit; as early as 1700, travellers were recommended to visit the peak to see "the most delightful prospect upon the valleys below to the hills above."</p><br>
<p>The site was notified as a geological Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1954, with a boundary extension in 1986 bringing the designated area to 10.86 hectares. The site is listed as being of national importance in the Geological Conservation Review.</p><br>
<p>During the Napoleonic Wars, the Wensleydale volunteers responded to a false alarm when the beacon on Penhill in North Yorkshire was lit in response to a supposed lit beacon on Roseberry Topping, 40 miles distant. This turned out to be burning heather. From "Wensleydale", p. 176, by Ella Pontefract, pub. 1936.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In Joseph Reed’s 1761 farce, The Register-Office, the character Margery Moorpout, who hails from ‘Yatton’, sings the praises of ‘Roſeberry’, which she claims to be a mile and a half high:</p><br>
<p>Certainly God! ye knaw Roſeberry? I thought ony Fule had knawn Roſeberry!—It’s t’ biggeſt Hill in oll Yorkſhire—It’s aboun a Mile an a hofe high, an as coad as Ice at’ top on’t i’t hetteſt Summer’s Day—that it’s.</p><br>
<p>A reference to Roseberry Topping was featured in the folk-rock group America&#39;s "Hat Trick" from the Hat Trick album. The exact lyric stanza is:</p><br>
<p>Newton-Under-Roseberry-Topping</p><br>
<p>And its cold and its wet</p><br>
<p>And you feel like youre part of all time&#39;</p><br>
<p>Chris Rea dedicated the song "Chisel Hill" from the album Shamrock Diaries to Roseberry Topping.</p><br>
<p>Gordon Giltrap released an instrumental track named "Roseberry Topping" on his 2010 album Shining Morn.</p><br>
<p>Drumthwacket is the official residence of the governor of New Jersey. The mansion is located at 354 Stockton Street in Princeton, near the state capital of Trenton. </p><br>
<p>Drumthwacket and the surrounding land was sold to the state in 1966 and was designated the governor&#39;s mansion in 1982. The estate is administered by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. The non-profit Drumthwacket Foundation is responsible for preserving, restoring, and curating the house and grounds. In addition to being an executive residence, the home is also a historic house museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The land that it is built upon was once owned by William Penn, the Quaker proprietor of the Province of Pennsylvania. William Olden acquired the property in 1696, and a small white homestead by Stockton Street called Olden House was later built on it.</p><br>
<p>In 1799 Charles Smith Olden was born there. Olden gained wealth working at a mercantile firm in Philadelphia and later New Orleans before returning to Princeton, where in 1835 he began to build Drumthwacket, taking its name from two Scottish Gaelic words meaning "wooded hill." Olden began his involvement in politics as a gentleman farmer and businessman, as treasurer and Trustee of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), as a state Senator, and finally in 1860 as governor, the first to live at Drumthwacket. The original structure consisted of a center hall with two rooms on each side, including the -story center section and large portico with six Ionic columns, which remains today.</p><br>
<p>In 1893, financier, industrialist, and Princeton University benefactor Moses Taylor Pyne purchased Drumthwacket for the sum of $15,000 from Oldens widow. Pyne was responsible for major expansions of the home, turning it into a magnificent estate, "surpassing anything previously built in Princeton." Pynes huge wealth allowed him to add two wings on each side of the house, in 1893 and 1900, both designed by Raleigh C. Gildersleeve (who also designed many Princeton University buildings) and including a paneled library. Pyne also added park-like landscaping, greenhouses, bridle paths, a dairy farm, and formal Italian gardens.</p><br>
<p>Pyne died in 1921; the property, including the house and twelve surrounding acres, was sold by Pynes one grandchild Agnes Pyne in 1941 to Abram Nathaniel Spanel. Spanel was an industrialist and inventor who had immigrated from Russia as a child. He founded the International Latex Corporation, which later became the International Playtex Corporation. Many of Spanels engineers staff lived at Drumthwacket, and many of his patented inventions were conceived in what later became known as the Music Room.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, the Spanels sold the estate to New Jersey with the intent that it be used as the governors official residence, to replace Morven, the old governors mansion. However, it took 15 years for the estate to be used as an official residence, with the New Jersey Historical Society in 1981 finally raising enough funds. In 1982, the Drumthwacket Foundation was formed.</p><br>
<h2>Use by recent Governors</h2><br>
<p>Thomas Kean (1982–1990) lived in his private home.</p><br>
<p>James Florio (1990–1994) lived full-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Christine Todd Whitman (1994–2001) lived part-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Donald DiFrancesco (2001–2002) lived part-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>John O. Bennett (2002) lived in the mansion for his 3½ days as Acting Governor.</p><br>
<p>James McGreevey (2002–2004) lived full-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Richard Codey (2004–2006) lived part-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Jon Corzine (2006–2010) lived part-time in the mansion. Drumthwacket became his full-time residence while he was recovering from injuries sustained in a severe automobile accident.</p><br>
<p>Chris Christie (2010–) only uses the mansion for Sunday dinners and official functions, while living in his private home.</p><br>
<h2>Building details and tours</h2><br>
<p>There are 12 private rooms upstairs used by the first family and six public rooms on the main floor that are the site of many official functions. An annual Garden Club holiday display is a tradition at the property.</p><br>
<p>Drumthwacket is open for guided tours on most Wednesdays, except for the entire month of August, the day before Thanksgiving, and several other dates. The tour includes the six public rooms used by the governor for meetings and receptions, as well as the solarium, center hall, dining room, parlor, music room, library, and governor&#39;s study. Guided tours are conducted by volunteer docents. Visitors are also welcome to walk through the gardens and visit the Olden House, the restored farmhouse on the property that is home to the gift shop and Drumthwacket Foundation.</p><br>
<p>Mount Arvon, elevation 1,979 ft, located in L&#39;Anse Township, Baraga County, is the highest natural point in the USA state of Michigan. Like nearby Arvon Township, Mount Arvon takes its name from the deposits of slate in the area which were reminiscent of those around Caernarfon in Wales. Mount Arvon is part of the Huron Mountains. It rises about 8 mi south of Lake Superior . On the list of highest natural points in each USA state, Mount Arvon ranks 38th.</p><br>
<p>Mount Arvon is a few miles from Mount Curwood, which for years had been designated as Michigans highest spot until a resurvey in 1982 with modern technology determined that Mount Arvon is 1 ft taller than Mount Curwood. Mount Arvon is about 12 mi east of LAnse, although it is about a 26 mi drive from the city as much of it lies on winding logging roads.</p><br>
<p>The property is owned by the MeadWestvaco paper company but public access is allowed.</p><br>
<p>The Alfred McCune Home is one of the mansions on Capitol Hill in Salt Lake City, Utah, from around the turn of the 20th century. Built for Alfred W. McCune on the inclined south side of Capitol Hill at the northeast corner of 200 North Main Street, the mansion has 21 rooms and is on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>About the owner</h2><br>
<p>McCune was born in Calcutta, India, while his father, Matthew McCune, was stationed with the British Army and converted there to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The family immigrated to Utah Territory, settling in Farmington and then in Nephi. Alfred William McCune joined the LDS Church in Farmington in 1857. He and Elizabeth were childhood sweethearts and were married on July 1, 1872, in the Endowment House in Salt Lake City. Though McCune was not very active in church service, he donated a lot of money to it. According to LDS Church president Heber J. Grant&#39;s notes in his personal journal (April 1, 1927), McCune was always in good standing with the LDS Church.</p><br>
<p>By the time he was 21, McCune had contracted to build portions of the Utah Southern Railroad. He was a highly successful railroad builder, and became well-connected to other late 19th century millionaires. He was a partner in the Peruvian Cerro de Pasco mines along with J. P. Morgan, William Randolph Hearst, and Frederick William Vanderbilt. He owned business interests throughout Utah and in parts of Montana, British Columbia, and South America.</p><br>
<p>McCune was respected by his contemporaries for his integrity, his congenial personality, and his generous donations to worthy causes. He was also civic-minded and politically ambitious. In 1899, he ran for the Senate as the Democratic candidate against Republican incumbent Frank J. Cannon and several other candidates. When none was able to get a majority of votes, the election went down in history as the time when Utah was unable to select or send a senator to Washington. McCune later tried again for the Senate but was defeated by another mining and railroad magnate, Thomas Kearns.</p><br>
<h2>The House</h2><br>
<p>The house was built in 1900. Elizabeth McCune had as many diversified interests as her husband had. She served in many prominent LDS Church positions and became close friends with Susa Young Gates, one of the daughters of Brigham Young. An active supporter of women&#39;s rights, Elizabeth attended the 1889 International Congress of Women in London. After being voted patron of the organization, Elizabeth was entertained by Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle.</p><br>
<p>McCune wanted his home to be an extravagant display and to this end he financed a two-year tour of America and Europe for his architect S. C. Dallas to study designs and techniques. The design chosen was a Gothic revival plan with East Asian influence. The home is a replica of a house Alfred and Elizabeth saw while driving on Riverside Drive in New York City.</p><br>
<p>While the home was under construction, John R. Winder and McCune called upon the First Presidency of the LDS Church. McCune told them that he and his wife were building a new home and wished to rent the Gardo House for two or three years. The Gardo house had been used as a residence and offices for LDS Church leaders. Relieved to find a suitable new tenant, the church accepted his offer and set the rent at $150 per month.</p><br>
<p>The McCune home site was chosen to rise up impressively over the nearby streets, and little expense was spared on decoration. McCune had mahogany shipped from San Domingo, oak from England, and a rare white-grained mahogany from South Africa. The red roof tiles came from the Netherlands, and an enormous broad mirror wall was transported from Germany in a specially made railroad car. The walls were adorned with moiré silks, tapestries, and Russian leather. The exterior of the home was built of red Utah sandstone although some details like the lavish fireplaces used more exotic stone like Nubian marble. The home was completed in 1901 at a cost of one million dollars.</p><br>
<h2>History after the McCunes</h2><br>
<p>McCune and his wife lived in the home until 1920. Prior to moving to Los Angeles, they donated it to the LDS Church with the intent that it be used as an official residence for church president Heber J. Grant. Grant did not like the idea of living in such an ornate residence, and so decided to turn it into a Music School. It was used as the McCune School of Music, which ended in 1957 and was replaced by the Brigham Young University Salt Lake City Center, until 1972 when it too was moved into a larger location. In 1973, the LDS Church sold the house to a group of Salt Lake City residents who were seeking to make the building into a cultural center.</p><br>
<p>It then became the Virginia Tanner Modern Dance School, which held lessons in the ballroom. Since then, the building has been privately owned, often used for wedding receptions and other short-term rentals.</p><br>
<p>Philip McCarthey, a shareholder of the Kearns-Tribune Corp., which published The Salt Lake Tribune until 1997, bought the building and began restoring it after the August 11, 1999, Salt Lake City Tornado, which had toppled one of the building&#39;s smokestacks. McCarthey completed the restoration in November 2001.</p><br>
<p>The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<p>A carriage house on the property, designed by architect Henry Monheim, is also a contributing building; it was built for the Judge R. N. Baskin house built in 1872 previously on the site, and was retained.</p><br>
<p>The Pangaion Hills  are a mountain range in Greece, approximately 40 km from Kavala. The highest elevation is 1,956 m and the mountaintop name is Koutra. The Aegean Sea lies to the south and the plains of Philippi-Kavala to the north The mountain ranges covers the southeastern portion of the Serres regional unit as well as northwestern part of the Kavala regional unit which covers the most part of the hills.</p><br>
<p>Ottoman Turks called the hills Pınar Dağ (Spring Mount). The Bulgarian name is Kushnitsa (Кушница) or Kushinitsa (Кушиница).</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The hills are directly across a fertile plain from the ancient city of Philippi, they are located in the ancient country of Sintice, between the Strymon and the Xiropotamos rivers and are covered in Oriental plane and Chestnut trees. Towns found in the Pangaion hills include Nikisiani and Palaiochori which are agricultural in nature and grow mainly grain and tobacco. The town of Palaiochori boasts the ruins of an ancient castle on a peak overlooking the town. Gold and silver were mined in the ancient times. The Athenian tyrant Pisistratus was exiled in the middle of the mountain. It was with the rich gold and silver available in the region in mind that the Athenians sent out a colony in 465 in an area known as the Nine Roads (Ennea Hodoi). The colonists were massacred by nearby Thracians and the colony was abandoned, though the Athenians would return to the area with their colony at Amphipolis.</p><br>
<p>Pangaion is very often referred by ancient Greek and Latin sources. It was famous for silver and gold mines, as well as for shipyard wood and the oracle of Dionysus.</p><br>
<p>The municipality of Pangaio is named after this mountain range and the seat of the municipality is Eleftheroupolis.</p><br>
<p>The Anahulu River  is the longest watercourse on the island of Oahu in the U.S. state of Hawaii. It is 7.1 mi long.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>It is formed on the western side of the northern Koolau Range approximately 7 mi northeast of Wahiawā by the confluence of Kawainui and Kawaiiki streams, both perennial. It flows west-northwest descending through Kawailoa Gulch, then empties into the eastern end of Waialua Bay at Haleiwa. It has a watershed of approximately 16 square miles and a 100-year peak discharge of 16,200 ft/s (459 m³/s).</p><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence indicates that the valley of the river near its mouth was the site of ancient Hawaiian villages. The river valley was abandoned but was later repopulated in the early 19th century, partly as the result of a policy by King Kamehameha I to grow food to support his military expeditions. The policy included the development of irrigated terraces. In 1832 U.S. Protestant missionaries John Emerson and his wife Ursula Sophia circumnavigated Oahu and put in at the mouth of the river, located at . At the village of Haleiwa (from hale (home) of the iwa (frigate bird)), they were welcomed by Chief Laanui and established the Liliuokalani Church in the village.</p><br>
<p>In the later 19th century the village of Haleiwa and the surrounding river valley became a popular summer vacation destination for the Hawaiian monarchs. The first hotel was built along the river by businessman Benjamin Dillingham, who also built Oahu railroad from Honolulu to the north shore in 1898. The railroad and hotel made the river valley a popular vacation spot.</p><br>
<p>The Connecticut Lakes are a group of lakes in Coos County, northern New Hampshire, United States, situated along the headwaters of the Connecticut River. They are accessed via the northernmost segment of U.S. Route 3, between the village of Pittsburg and the Canada port of entry south of Chartierville, Quebec. The lakes are located within the boundaries of Pittsburg, but are far from the town center. Connecticut Lakes State Forest adjoins them.</p><br>
<p>There are four lakes: First, Second, Third and Fourth Connecticut Lake, numerically running south to north. First Connecticut Lake is the largest. Fourth is the smallest, northernmost, and the source of the Connecticut River. The only access to this lake is via the Fourth Connecticut Lake Trail, which goes in and out of Canada. All lakes are north of the 45th parallel.</p><br>
<h2>First Connecticut Lake</h2><br>
<p>First Connecticut Lake is located in the town of Pittsburg, 5 mi northeast of the village center. At 3,071 acre, it is the eighth-largest lake located entirely in New Hampshire. It is the lowest (and largest) of the chain of lakes near the headwaters of the Connecticut River.</p><br>
<p>Fish species include landlocked salmon and lake trout.</p><br>
<h2>Second Connecticut Lake</h2><br>
<p>Second Connecticut Lake, known in the past as Lake Carmel, is an 1,102 acre water body in the town of Pittsburg, situated 2 mi upstream from First Connecticut Lake.</p><br>
<p>Fish species include brook trout, landlocked salmon, and lake trout.</p><br>
<h2>Third Connecticut Lake</h2><br>
<p>Third Connecticut Lake, at one time known as Lake St. Sophia,</p><br>
<p>Fish species include rainbow trout and lake trout.</p><br>
<h2>Fourth Connecticut Lake</h2><br>
<p>The Fourth Connecticut Lake is the northernmost, smallest and most remote of the Connecticut Lakes in New Hampshire. It is the source of the Connecticut River, situated 0.5 mi upstream from and 482 ft higher than Third Connecticut Lake. The Fourth Connecticut Lake Trail, which criss-crosses the international border between the United States and Canada, leads hikers to the lake. The land surrounding the lake is owned by The Nature Conservancy. The Fourth Lake is immediately to the northwest of the third lake.</p><br>
<h2>Connecticut Lakes Natural Area</h2><br>
<p>The 25,000 acre surrounding the lakes was set aside as a land conservation project in 2002 by the New Hampshire Fish and Game Department. The protected area is within the towns of Clarksville and Pittsburg, up to the border with Canada.</p><br>
<p>Rila  is a mountain range in southwestern Bulgaria and the highest mountain range of Bulgaria and the Balkans, with its highest peak being Musala at 2,925 m. The massif is also the sixth highest mountain in Europe , coming after the Caucasus, the Alps, Sierra Nevada, the Pyrenees and Mount Etna, and the highest between the Alps and the Caucasus. More than one-third of the mountain is occupied by the Rila National Park, the rest lies within the Rila Monastery Nature Park.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is believed to have been named after the river of the same name, which comes from the Old Bulgarian verb "рыти" meaning "to grub".</p><br>
<p>Rila is abundant in glacial lakes (about 200) and hot springs in fault areas at the base of the mountain. Some of the Balkans&#39; longest and deepest rivers originate from Rila, including Maritsa, Iskar and Mesta.</p><br>
<p>Culturally, Rila is famous for the Rila Monastery, Bulgaria&#39;s largest and most important monastery, founded in the 10th century by Saint John of Rila. Alongside the cultural landmarks the mountain is also famous for the Seven Rila Lakes.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Rila is a dome-shaped horst mountain, part of the Balkans oldest land, the Macedono-Thracian Massif. It was formed by granite and gneiss rocks and crystal schists during the Cenozoic (10,000,000 years ago). Rilas alpine relief was formed during the Pleistocene by a series of glacial periods. During the most recent, so-called Würm glaciation, 10-12,000 years ago the permanent snow line was at 2,100 m above sea level. Above this line glaciers radically changed the existing relief, carving out deep cirques, sharp pyramid-shaped peaks, rock pinnacles, various valleys, moraines and other typical glacial formations.</p><br>
<h2>Borders and climate</h2><br>
<p>Rila has an area of 2,400 km². The dome of the mountain rises over the surrounding mountain valleys, with the Borovets Saddle (1,305 m) connecting the main Musala Ridge with the Shipochan and Shumnatitsa ridges that connect to the Ihtiman Sredna Gora mountains through the Gate of Trajan pass. The Yundola Saddle (1,375 m) and the Avramovo Saddle (1,295 m) link Rila with the Rhodopes to the east, while the connection with Pirin is the Predel Saddle (1,140 m), the one with Verila being the Klisura Saddle (1,025 m).</p><br>
<p>The climate is typically alpine, with 2,000 mm of precipitation on Musala yearly, about half of which is snow. The lowest average temperature ever measured in February on Musala is –11.6 °C and the absolute minimum is -31.2 °C. An average temperature for August is 5.4 °C, the maximum being 18.7 °C.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The flora of Rila contains three local endemics which are seen only in this mountain. These plants are Primula deorum (with the largest population), Rheum rhaponticum and Alchemilla pawlowskii. In the mountain thrives also 36 plants as Campanula lanata, Centaurea mannagettae which are endemic for the Balkans. Some of the plant species have survived the last glacial period by turning into relict organisms.</p><br>
<p>Some of the animals, which live in Rila, are in danger as well. 24 of the species that inhabit Rila are listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. There are 172 types of vertebrates living in Rila and 121 of them are registered in the Bulgarian Red List of Threatened Species, 15 are recorded in the European Red List of Threatened Species, 24 are listed in the International Union for Conservation of Nature and 158 of 172 are included in the Bern Convention lists. Such animals are Barbus cyclolepis (which is rare because of the habitat loss and the river pollution), Triturus alpestris, Spermophilus citellus (European Ground Squirrel) and others.</p><br>
<h2>List of mammals in National park Rila</h2><br>
<p>There are 48 mammal species in National park Rila</p><br>
<p>Insectivores</p><br>
<p>Eastern European hedgehog</p><br>
<p>Shrew</p><br>
<p>Bats</p><br>
<p>Bats</p><br>
<p>Lagomorphs</p><br>
<p>European rabbit</p><br>
<p>Rodents</p><br>
<p>European ground squirrel</p><br>
<p>Vole</p><br>
<p>Water vole</p><br>
<p>Wild mice</p><br>
<p>Carnivores</p><br>
<p>Brown bear</p><br>
<p>Eurasian badger</p><br>
<p>European otter</p><br>
<p>European pine marten</p><br>
<p>Grey wolf</p><br>
<p>Least weasel</p><br>
<p>Marten</p><br>
<p>Red fox</p><br>
<p>Wild cat</p><br>
<p>Even-toed ungulates</p><br>
<p>Alpine ibex</p><br>
<p>Red deer</p><br>
<p>Roe deer</p><br>
<p>Wild boar</p><br>
<p>Wild goat</p><br>
<h2>Subdivision</h2><br>
<p>Rila is subdivided into several parts depending on their geographic position.</p><br>
<p>East Rila or the Musala Ridge is the highest and vastest part. The highest peak, as well as 12 of the 18 peaks over 2,700 m are located there — Musala, Yastrebets, Irechek, Deno Mancho, etc. The Musala Lakes lie in this part of Rila, as well as Ledeno ezero ("Icy Lake"), the highest lake of the Balkans at 2,709 m. Other lakes in East Rila include the Maritsa Lakes and the Ropalitsa Lakes. The renowned mountain resort of Borovets is also located in this part of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Central Rila or the Skakavets Ridge is the smallest part (1/10 of the total area), most famous for the glacial lakes — the Fish Lakes, Dzhendem Lakes, Monastery Lakes. The largest glacial lake of the Balkans, Smradlivo ezero ("Stinky Lake") with an area of 21.2 km² is located in Central Rila, as well as the peaks Kanarata, Cherna polyana, Malak Skakavets and Golyam Skakavets, Rilets. The ridge of the Skakavtsi (the peaks of Golyam Skakavets and Malak Skakavets, Pchelina and Sveti Duh) rises isolated between the Levi and Beli Iskar rivers. Another well-known ridge in the area is the one of Marinkovitsa and Vodniya chal, extending to the forest reserve of Kobilino branishte.</p><br>
<p>Northwest Rila takes up 25% of Rila&#39;s total area. The highest peak is Golyam Kupen at 2,731 m. The Seven Rila Lakes are an important landmark in this part, as well as the many remote peaks and small lakes.</p><br>
<p>Southwest Rila or the Kapatnik Ridge occupies 30% of Rila and has the oldest reserve of Bulgaria. Apart from its small northern part, Southwest Rila does not have the alpine appearance of the other parts.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks in Rila</h2><br>
<p>Musala — 2,925 m</p><br>
<p>Malka Musala (Lower Musala) — 2,902 m</p><br>
<p>Ovcharets (Yurushki chal) — 2,768 m</p><br>
<p>Golyam Kupen — 2,731 m</p><br>
<p>Malyovitsa — 2,729 m</p><br>
<p>Popova kapa — 2,704 m</p><br>
<p>Malka Malyovitsa — 2,698 m</p><br>
<p>Lopushki vrah — 2,698 m</p><br>
<p>Lovnitsa — 2,695 m</p><br>
<p>Kanarata — 2,691 m</p><br>
<p>Orlovets — 2,685 m</p><br>
<p>Pastri slap (Aladzha slap) – 2,684 m</p><br>
<p>Zliya zab — 2,678 m</p><br>
<p>Eleni vrah — 2,654 m</p><br>
<p>Kovach (Nalbant) vrah - 2,640 m</p><br>
<p>Suha Vapa vrah - 2,638 m</p><br>
<p>Ravni vrah (Ravni chal) — 2,637 m</p><br>
<p>Belmeken — 2,627 m</p><br>
<p>Kamilata — 2,621 m</p><br>
<p>Golyam Mechi vrah — 2,618 m</p><br>
<p>Dvuglav — 2,605 m</p><br>
<p>Golyam Mramorets (Golyam Mermer) — 2,598 m</p><br>
<p>Dodov (Drushlevishki) vrah — 2,597 m</p><br>
<p>Kozi vrah — 2,587 m</p><br>
<p>Iglata — 2,575 m</p><br>
<p>Mechit — 2,568 m</p><br>
<p>Ushite — 2,560 m</p><br>
<p>Ptichi vrah (Ashiklar) — 2,536 m</p><br>
<p>Malak Mechit — 2,535 m</p><br>
<p>Yanchov vrah — 2,481 m</p><br>
<p>Malak Mechi vrah — 2,474 m</p><br>
<p>Strazhnik (Kurdzhilak) — 2,469 m</p><br>
<p>Budachki kamak — 2,447 m</p><br>
<p>Kukov vrah — 2,411 m</p><br>
<p>Tsarev vrah — 2,376 m</p><br>
<p>Ivan Vazov (Damga) — 2,342 m</p><br>
<p>Markov kamak (Gorna Kadiitsa) — 2,342 m</p><br>
<p>Malka Popova kapa — 2,180 m</p><br>
<p>Treshtenik — 2,020 m</p><br>
<p>Angelov vrah</p><br>
<p>Malak Lopushki vrah</p><br>
<p>Malak Mramorets (Malak Mermer)</p><br>
<h2>Trivia</h2><br>
<p>Rila Point on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Rila Mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Panoramic views</h2><br>
<p>The Pirin Mountains  are a mountain range in southwestern Bulgaria, with Vihren at an altitude of 2,914 m being the highest peak. The mountain is named after Perun , the highest god of the Slavic pantheon and the god of thunder and lightning. In the Antiquity the range was called Perinthos by the Thracians, meaning "Rocky Mountain".</p><br>
<p>The range extends about 80 km from the north-west to the south-east and is about 40 km wide, spanning a territory of 2,585 km&sup2;. To the north Pirin is separated from Bulgarias highest mountain range, the Rila Mountains, by the Predel saddle, while to the south it reaches the Slavyanka Mountains. To the west is located the valley of the river Struma and to the east the valley of the river Mesta separates it from the Rhodope Mountains. Pirin is dotted with more than a hundred glacial lakes and is also the home of Europes southernmost glaciers, Snezhnika and Banski Suhodol.</p><br>
<p>The northern part of the range, which is also the highest one, is protected by the Pirin National Park, declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. Pirin is noted for its rich flora and fauna, as well as for the presence of a number of relict species. Much of the area is forested, with some of the best preserved conifer woods in Bulgaria, holding important populations of the Balkan endemic species Macedonian pine, Bosnian pine and Bulgarian fir. Animals include many species of high conservation value, such as brown bear, gray wolf, wildcat, European pine marten, wild boar, red deer, roe deer, chamois, etc.</p><br>
<p>The combination of favourable natural conditions and varied historical heritage contribute makes Pirin an important tourist destination. The town of Bansko, situated on the north-eastern slopes of the mountain, has grown to be the primary ski and winter sports centre in the Balkans. A number of settlements at the foothills of Pirin have mineral spring and are spa resorts — Banya, Dobrinishte, Gotse Delchev, Sandanski, etc. Melnik at the south-western foothills of the mountain is Bulgaria&#39;s smallest town and is an architectural reserve. Within a few kilometres from the town are the Melnik Rock Pyramids and the Rozhen Monastery.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Overview</h3><br>
<p>Pirin is situated in south-western Bulgaria and is part of the Rila–Rhodope Massif. To the north the Predel Saddle and mountain pass at 1140 m altitude separates it from the Rila mountain range. To the east Pirin borders the Razlog Valley and the valley of the river Mesta that separate it from the Rhodope Mountains. To the south the Paril Saddle (1170 m) divides it from the Slavyanka mountain range. To the west Pirin reaches the valley of the river Struma, including the Kresna Gorge and the Sandanski-Petrich Valley, that serve as a divide from the mountains Vlahina, Maleshevo and Ograzhden further to the west.</p><br>
<p>The main orographic ridge extends from the north-west to the south-east. Pirin spans an area of 2,585 km with an average height of 1,033 m. The maximum length between the Paril and Predel saddles is 80 km; the maximum width is 40 km. Reaching an altitude of 2,914 m Pirin is the second highest mountain range in Bulgaria after Rila (2,925 m) and the eighth highest in Europe after the Caucasus, the Alps, Sierra Nevada, the Pyrenees, Mount Etna, the aforementioned Rila, and Mount Olympus.</p><br>
<h3>Division</h3><br>
<p>Geologically and morphologically Pirin is divided into three parts: north, central and south one, which differ sharply in size and altitude. North Pirin is the largest of the subdivisions and the mountains downright part. It is the most often visited part of the mountain, the only one to have an Alpine appearance, featuring many glacial lakes, resthouses and shelters. North Pirin is itself divided into two zones by the Kabata Saddle and the valleys of the Banderitsa and Vlahinska rivers. The northern zone consists of the steep marble Vihren ridge with the three highest summits in the range: Vihren (2914 m), Kutelo (2908 m) and Banski Suhodol (2884 m). The marble ridge is narrow and very steep, reaching a width of only 0.5 m at the ridge Koncheto (2810 m). The southern zone is more massive and consists primarily of granite ridges, including Pirins fourth highest summit Polezhan, at 2851 m. The southern zone also has marble ridges, such as the Sinanitsa ridge with its homonymous summit (2516 m). In total the northern section of Pirin includes two summits with an altitude over 2900 m, seven over 2800 m, 13 over 2700 m and 60 over 2500 m.</p><br>
<p>Central Pirin extends between the Todorova Polyana Saddle and the Popovi Livadi Saddle. It constitutes the smallest and the shortest of the three subdivisions, covering only 7% of Pirin&#39;s total area. It is composed of crystalline schists and granite, as well as of marbled limestone in the south. Because of the karstic relief there are no lakes; the rivers springing up from Central Pirin are short and with low water volume. It is largely covered by deciduous forests. The highest peak is Orelyak (2,099 m), while the other summits are under 2,000 m.</p><br>
<p>South Pirin stretches from the Popovi Livadi Saddle to the Paril Saddle and is the lowest and least rugged part, the highest peak being Svesthnik at 1,975 m. It constitutes 19% of the mountain&#39;s territory. Despite being characterised with relatively flat ridges, its lateral slopes are steep. South Pirin is composed of granite with marbled limestone in the periphery. It lacks glacial forms and is covered with forests. Like Central Pirin the springs are short and with low water discharge.</p><br>
<h2>Geology, relief and peaks in Pirin</h2><br>
<p>Geologically Pirin is a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of the Struma and the Mesta, formed by metamorphic rocks — gneiss, biotite and crystalline schists, amphibolite, quartzite and marble. Granite rocks cover 62% of the mointain&#39;s area. The tectonics of the Pirin is primarily the result of Precambrian, Hercynian, alpine and tectonic movements and events. Its hoisting alternated with long dormant periods. As a result of the activisation of the ancient Struma and Mesta faults during the Neogene and the Quaternary Pirin rose as a massive horst.</p><br>
<p>The modern relief of Pirin was shaped in the Pleistocene when the mountain was subjected to alpine glaciation related to the global cooling. This glaciation occurred in parallel with that of the Alps. These forms are most prominent at the north-eastern ridges of the mountain. Some lateral moraines may reach heights of more than 1100 m. The lower line of the glaciers was at 2200–2300 m. Karst landforms also shape Pirin&#39;s relief with ponors, swallow holes, caves, etc.</p><br>
<p>The main Pirin ridge is clearly distinguished; it begins in Rila and passes through the Predel saddle as far as the Paril saddle. It links the separate smaller ridges of the mountain into one system with the highest peaks situated on it. Although it curves a lot, its main direction is from the northwest to southeast and it is also a watershed between the Struma and the Mesta rivers. There are many spurs but four of them are so large that they create the appearance of the mountain: Sinanishko, Todorino, Polezhansko and Kamenishko.</p><br>
<p>There are two peaks above 2,900 m, Vihren and Kutelo; seven above 2,800 m; 13 above 2,700 m; 32 above 2,600 m and 60 above 2,500 m. The highest granite peak is the Banderishki Chukar (2,732 m). Some of the highest peaks are:</p><br>
<p>Vihren, 2,914 m</p><br>
<p>Kutelo, 2,908 m</p><br>
<p>Banski Suhodol, 2,884 m</p><br>
<p>Polezhan, 2,851 m</p><br>
<p>Kamenitsa, 2,822 m</p><br>
<p>Malak Polezhan, 2,822 m</p><br>
<p>Bayuvi Dupki, 2,820 m</p><br>
<p>Yalovarnika, 2,763 m</p><br>
<p>Kaymakchal, 2,763 m</p><br>
<p>Gazey, 2,761 m</p><br>
<p>Todorka, 2,746 m</p><br>
<p>Banderishki Chukar, 2,732 m</p><br>
<p>Dzhengal, 2,730 m</p><br>
<p>Momin Dvor, 2,723 m</p><br>
<p>Koteshki Chal, 2,715 m</p><br>
<p>Bezimenen Vrah, 2,712 m</p><br>
<p>Malka Todorka, 2,712 m</p><br>
<p>Chengelchal, 2,709 m</p><br>
<p>Disilitsa, 2,700 m</p><br>
<p>Kamenishka Kukla, 2,690 m</p><br>
<p>Kuklite, 2,686 m</p><br>
<p>Bashliyski Chukar, 2,670 m</p><br>
<p>Muratov Vrah, 2,669 m</p><br>
<p>Dzhano, 2,668 m</p><br>
<p>Bezbog, 2,645 m</p><br>
<p>Sivria, 2,593 m</p><br>
<p>Sinanitsa, 2,516 m</p><br>
<p>The most recognisable rock formation in the mountain range are the Melnik Rock Pyramids situated in the southwestern reaches of Pirin in the vicinity of the homonymous town. They are located at an altitude between 350 and 850 m and are composed of sandstone and conglomerates dated from the Neogene and the Quaternary Periods. The Pyramids were formed as a result of erosion as the Melnishka River and its tributaries had carved their way into the hills forging pyramid-like forms of significant aesthetic value that reach height of 100 m. This process began 4–5 million years ago and is still ongoing. The combination of pale Pliocene sandstones and red Quaternary conglomerates determines the yellowish and reddish colour gamut and the diverse shapes. The Melnik Rock Pyramids constitute a specific and unique micro habitat of high conservation value and were designated a natural landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<p>Similar rock formations are found further north along the slopes of Pirin facing the Struma Valley near the town of Kresna.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Pirin is situated within the continental Mediterranean climate zone and due to its altitude the higher sectors have Alpine climate. The relief has a crucial influence on the climate. Pirin has three altitude climate zones — low between 600 and 1000 m, middle between 1000 and 1800 m and high above 1800 m. The low altitude zone is heavily influenced by the Mediterranean climate, the influence being more pronounced on the western slopes facing the Struma valley than on the eastern slopes along the Mesta valley. The high altitude zone is characterised by low temperature, low temperature amplitude, many cloudy days, lasting and thick snow cover, strong winds and intensive sun radiation.</p><br>
<p>Winters are cold and prolonged while summers are cool and short. The temperature decreases with the altitude, which is more visible in summer. The mean annual temperature is around 9–10 °C in the low, 5–7 °C in the middle and 2–3 °C in the high altitude zone. The coldest month is January with average temperature varying between −5 and −2 °C. The hottest month is July with temperature averaging 20 °C at 1600 m and 15 °C at 2000 m. Temperature inversions, i.e. increase in temperature with height, are observed in 75% of the winter days.</p><br>
<p>The annual precipitation in Pirin is 600–700 mm in the lower zones and 1000–1200 mm in the higher. In winter the precipitation is mainly snow, varying from 70–90% at the lower altitudes to 100% at higher. The average number of days with snow cover varies from 20–30 to 120–160. The highest thickness of the snow cover reaches 40–60 cm at 1000–1800 m in February and 160–180 cm above 1800 m in March (190 cm on Vihren). In some winters the snow thickness can reach 250–350 cm. Avalanches are frequent.</p><br>
<p>The prevailing wind direction is from the west and the north-west but southern and south-western winds are also frequent. The wind speed can reach 34–40 m/s at the high ridges, being highest in February and March and lowest in August and September. The percentage of windless days increases in summer and autumn to 30–40% at lower altitude and 10–15% at higher. In the highest zone the percentage does not exceed 5–7% annually.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Pirin forms the water divide between the basins of the rivers Struma and Mesta. The watershed follows the main ridge of the mountain in direction north-west to south-east. As the main ridge is situated closer to the Mesta valley, the tributaries to the Struma tend to be longer. The rivers are short, steep and with high water volume; the river bottom is rocky or covered with large sediments. Reaching a length of 53 km, Pirinska Bistritsa is the longest river in the massif. Pirin has abundant mineral springs, being among Bulgaria&#39;s richest areas. Based on the chemical composition they are divided into two thermal groups — in the Mesta and the Struma basins. The springs in the Mesta basin to the east are more alkaline, with lower mineralisation (below 400 mg/l) and conductance; those on the western slopes reach higher temperatures, up to 86°C.</p><br>
<p>A total of 176 glacial lakes are situated in the mountain range, all of them in the North Pirin. Many of the lakes are covered with ice during most of the year. The ice thickness reaches 3 m in the highest lakes. The lakes and the lake groups are:</p><br>
<p>Popovo Lakes – 11</p><br>
<p>Kremenski Lakes – 5</p><br>
<p>Banderishki Lakes – 16</p><br>
<p>Vasilashki Lakes – 12</p><br>
<p>Valyavishki Lakes – 10</p><br>
<p>Chairski Lakes – 10</p><br>
<p>Vlahini Lakes – 5</p><br>
<p>Malokamenishki Lakes – 20</p><br>
<p>Prevalski Lakes – 4</p><br>
<p>Bashliiski Lakes – 4</p><br>
<p>Polezhanski Lakes – 2</p><br>
<p>Tipitski Lakes – 2</p><br>
<p>Sinanishko Lake</p><br>
<p>Bezbozhko Lake</p><br>
<p>Salzitsa Lake</p><br>
<p>Pirin is also home to two small glaciers, remnants from the last Ice Age. Snezhnika is located in the deep Golemiya Kazan cirque at the steep northern foot of Vihren and is the southernmost glacier in Europe. Banski Suhodol Glacier is larger and situated a bit to the north below Koncheto Ridge.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<p>The vegetation of Pirin is vertically divided into five distinct elevation zones: Mediterranean, deciduous, coniferous, that combined form the tree line reaching approximately altitude of 2,000 m, shrubs forming the subalpine line up to 2,500 m and alpine meadows, also known as the alpine line above 2,500 m. The Mediterranean zone is dominated, among other, by pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) and Oriental Hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), the deciduous zone by European oak (Quercus robur) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica), and the coniferous — by Macedonian pine (Pinus peuce), Bosnian pine (Pinus heldreichii) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). The subalpine line is mainly covered with dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo) and common juniper (Juniperus communis). The alpine line is covered with grass, moss, lichen and abundant in bilberries and rare flowers such as the edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum). Pirin is home to Bulgarias oldest tree, the 1300–year Baikushevs pine — a Bosnian pine that is a contemporary of the foundation of the Bulgarian state in 681 AD.</p><br>
<p>The total number of vascular plants is 1315 species, or approximately 1/3 of Bulgaria&#39;s flora, many of them being rare and under protection. There are 18 species endemic to Pirin, including Pirin poppy (Papaver degenii), Pirin meadow-grass (Poa pirinica), Urumov oksitropis (Oxytropis urumovii) among others, as well as another 17 taxa restricted only to Bulgaria, which makes a total of 35 Bulgarian endemic species. The non-vascular plants are represented by 165 algae, 329 moss and 367 lichen species.</p><br>
<p>The vertebrate fauna of Pirin consists of 229 species. The mammal species are 45 and include brown bear, gray wolf, wildcat, European pine marten, wild boar, red deer, roe deer and chamois. The total number of bird species is 159,</p><br>
<p>The rich wildlife in the mountain is protected by the Pirin National Park founded in 1962 and designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. The park spans an area of 403,32 km and includes two nature reserves.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Due to the fertile foothills and the favourable terrain for defence Pirin has been continuously inhabited since prehistoric times. Archaeological remains left by the Thracians have been discovered at the western foothills along the Struma Valley and in the Razlog Valley. As the region was annexed by the Roman Empire by the 1st century BC the number of settlements saw further expansion. During the Early Middle Ages the area around Pirin was settled by Slavic tribes along with most of the Balkans and was absorbed by the Bulgarian Empire in the 9th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Pirin remained contested between the Bulgarian and the Byzantine Empires until it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in the late 14th century. The population of the region played an active role during the Bulgarian National Revival and the struggle for national liberation. The important 18th century Bulgarian enlightener Paisius of Hilendar and author of Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya was born in Bansko at the northern foothills of Pirin. Bulgaria achieved liberation in 1878 but as a result of the Congress of Berlin Pirin remained in the Ottoman Empire. In response, the local population in Pirin rebelled in the Kresna–Razlog uprising (1878–1879) and later took part in the Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising (1903) but both were quelled by the Ottomans. The region was finally liberated by the Bulgarian Army in October 1912 during the course of the First Balkan War (1912–1913).</p><br>
<h2>Settlements, transportation and economy</h2><br>
<p>Pirin is a sparsely populated mountain range with all the settlements located at the foothills and none in the mountain itself. Kresna (3,267), Sandanski (26,023) and Melnik (170), as well as three more to the north and the east — Bansko (7,369), Dobrinishte (2,377) and Gotse Delchev (19,087). There are a number of villages, including among others Brezhani, Vlahi, Ploski, Lilyanovo, Dzhigurovo, Gorna Sushitsa, Kashina, Pirin, Belyovo, Novo Delchevo, Kremen, Breznitsa, Dobrotino, Kornitsa, Lazhnitsa, etc.</p><br>
<p>Pirin is served by two main roads — the first class I-1 road, part of European route E79, along the Struma valley to the west that links the capital Sofia and the provincial centre Blagoevgrad with Greece at Kulata, and the second class II-19 road which branches off I-1 at Simitly, goes east crossing the Predel Saddle and then turns south along the Mesta Valley to Gotse Delchev and the border with Greece at Ilinden. The Struma motorway is planned to run in parallel with the I-1 road, with one section between Novo Delchevo and the border already finished and another one linking Novo Delchevo and Kresna under construction as of 2017. Due to the rugged relief Pirin is crossed by only one road, the third class III-198 road that links I-1 and II-19 through the Paril Saddle between Central and South Pirin. The mountain range is served by the Bulgarian State Railways via railway line No. 5 along the Struma Valley in the west and the Septemvri–Dobrinishte narrow-gauge line with terminus at the latter town in the northern foothills.</p><br>
<p>The economy is based on agriculture, industry, services and tourism. There are small deposits of sub-bituminous coal as well as significant quantities of high-quality marble that is processed in Sandanski and part of the production is exported. A number of small hydro power plants have been constructed, mainly along Sandanska Bistritsa River. The rivers are also used for irrigation. Forests cover 1,996 km&sup2, or 5.5% of Bulgarias total, and are of commercial importance because of the high-quality timber. As logging is restricted in the protected areas the wood-processing industry in Pirin forms 3.5% of the nations total production in that sector. The lower parts of the mountain offer favourable conditions for agriculture, the most important cash crops being grapes, peanuts, tobacco and anise. The region around Melnik is renown for its centuries-old traditions in producing distinct red wines. Manufacturing industry is centres in Sandanski, Gotse Delchev, Bansko and Simitli; the main sectors are food processing, machine building and furniture production.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The favourable natural conditions for winter sports, spa and recreation combined with the architectural heritage make Pirin a popular tourist destination. Bansko is by far the most developed winter resort in the mountain range, being also Bulgaria&#39;s most popular one for foreigners — over 79,000 foreign tourists have stayed in Bansko for the 2016/17 winter season spending an average of four nights. Bansko has 75 km ski runs equipped with artificial snow machines as well as 22 km lifting facilities and provides conditions for alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, biathlon, snowboard, etc. The top elevation is 2560 m while the lowest is 990 m. Bansko regularly hosts European alpine ski and biathlon cups. Another much smaller resort is Dobriniste with 5 km of ski tracks.</p><br>
<p>The abundant mineral springs are a prerequisite for health and spa tourism. The most developed spa resorts are Dobrinishte and Sandanski. The former has 17 springs with a total discharge of 782 l/min and temperature of 28°С to 41.2°С and has a mineral beach among the other facilities. Sandanski is home to 11 springs with a total discharge of 1200 l/min and temperature of 33°С to 83°С that have been utilised since Antiquity. Other mineral baths are located in Bansko, Banya, Vlahi, Dolna Gradeshnitsa, Levunovo, Marikostinovo, Musomishta, Oshtava, Simitli and Hotovo.</p><br>
<p>There are 20 marked hiking trails within the borders of Pirin National Park. The steep rock faces in Northern Pirin provide favourable conditions for alpine climbing. The most popular places for practising climbing are the north wall of Vihren, as well as the peaks Kamenitsa, Banski Suhodol, Sinanitsa and Dzhengal among others. Pirin Golf Club near Bansko has 18- and 5-hole golf courses.</p><br>
<p>Cultural tourism is also well developed. Melnik has been designated an architectural reserve and one of the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria. Among the main sights are the ruins of the medieval fortress and the Church of St Nicholas, as well as a number of national revival style houses, such as the Kordopulov House. The monastery was established in the early 13th century during the Second Bulgarian Empire and has the shape of an irregular hexagon. There are frescoes dated from the 16th century. Rozhen Monastery was a regional centre for learning and calligraphy. In close proximity to the monastery is the Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius, built on the initiative of the Prominent Bulgarian revolutionary Yane Sandanski, which nowadays houses his tomb. The town of Sandanski boasts the ruins of a 5-6th century episcopal basilica that has been recently renovated. Bansko also has an old quarter with 18-19th century houses and the Church of Holy Trinity whose 30-meters high belfry is the symbol of the town.</p><br>
<h2>Honour</h2><br>
<p>Pirin Glacier on Graham Land in Antarctica is named after Pirin Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Loch Rannoch  is a large body of fresh water in Perth and Kinross, Scotland.</p><br>
<p>The loch is over 9 mi long in a west-east direction with an average width of about 1,090 yd. The River Tummel begins at its eastern end. The Tay Forest Park lies along its southern shore. The wild Rannoch Moor extends to the west of the loch and used to be part of the Caledonian Forest that stretched across much of Northern Scotland. This is proven in part by the presence of Scots Pine stumps preserved in the boggy areas of the moor, and pollen records from peat cores.</p><br>
<p>The loch and surrounding areas have suffered from extensive deforestation and plantation of alien species. These practices have given rise to sections of dense tree plantations alternating with deforested areas.</p><br>
<p>The loch and surrounding area does, however, offer good sport fishing and walking. The small village of Kinloch Rannoch lies at the eastern end of the loch, and a crannog (an ancient artificial island) with a folly on it can be found near its western end. Loch Rannoch was also used as a fictional racetrack in the videogame TOCA Race Driver 2.</p><br>
<p></text></p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Cayambe  is the name of a volcano located in the Cordillera Central, a range of the Ecuadorian Andes. It is located in Pichincha province some 70 km northeast of Quito. It is the third highest mountain in Ecuador.</p><br>
<p>Cayambe, which has a permanent snow cap, is a Holocene compound volcano which last erupted in March 1786. At 4,690 m on its south slope is the highest point in the world crossed by the Equator and the only point on the Equator with snow cover. The volcano and most of its slopes are within the Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve.</p><br>
<p>Cayambe was first climbed by British adventurer Edward Whymper and his two Italian guides and companions Juan Antonio and Luis Carrel in 1880, and it is a favorite of mountain climbers today.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kelsey is a mountain located in the western portion of Millsfield, New Hampshire. The western slopes of the mountain are contained within the township of Erving&#39;s Location, New Hampshire. The summit is occupied by part of the Granite Reliable Wind Farm, with road access from the Phillips Brook watershed to the south.</p><br>
<p>The north side of Mount Kelsey drains into the West Branch of Clear Stream, a tributary of the Androscoggin River, which flows south and east into Maine, joining the Kennebec River near the Atlantic Ocean. The southeast side of Kelsey drains into North Inlet Stream, thence into Millsfield Pond Brook, and into Clear Stream. The west side of Kelsey drains into Phillips Brook, thence into the Upper Ammonoosuc River, the upper Connecticut River, and into Long Island Sound in Connecticut.</p><br>
<p>Gudenå or Gudenåen, is Denmarks longest river and runs through the central parts of the Jutlandic peninsula. An anglicized version of the name often seen is The River Guden&#39;.</p><br>
<p>Gudenåen has its spring in Tinnet Krat, Vejle Municipality (between Nørre Snede and Tørring-Uldum) and flows a total of 176 km to Randers Fjord in Randers, on a northward course which takes it through the central parts of Jutland. On its way, the river traverses the relatively high lying region of Søhøjlandet, through the lakes of Naldal Sø, Vestbirk Sø, Mossø, Gudensø, Rye Mølle Sø, Birksø, Julsø, Borre Sø, Brassø, Silkeborg Langsø and Sminge Sø before it empties in Randers Fjord; a long inlet of the Kattegat sea. It is fed by numerous streams and wetlands along the way.</p><br>
<p>Gudneåen came into existence some 15,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age, when melting ice and glacial streams carved out its bed. The river shelters many species of animals and parts of its run, is to be protected under the regulations of Natura 2000.</p><br>
<p>The Gulf of Corinth or the Corinthian Gulf  is a deep inlet of the Ionian Sea separating the Peloponnese from western mainland Greece. It is bounded in the east by the Isthmus of Corinth which includes the shipping-designed Corinth Canal and in the west by the Strait of Rion which widens into the shorter Gulf of Patras  and of which the narrowest point is crossed since 2004 by the Rio-Antirio Bridge. The gulf is bordered by the large administrative divisions : Aetolia-Acarnania and Phocis in the north, Boeotia in the northeast, Attica in the east, Corinthia in the southeast and south and Achaea in the southwest. The gulf is in tectonic movement comparable to movement in parts of Iceland and Turkey, growing by 10 mm per year.</p><br>
<p>In medieval times, the gulf was known as the Gulf of Lepanto (the Italian form of Naupactus).</p><br>
<p>Shipping routes between the Greek commercial port Pireus (further away from ultimate destinations but larger and better connected to the south than the north-western Greek port of Igoumenitsa) to western Mediterranean and hemisphere ports pass along this gulf. A further crossing in the form of ferry links Aigio and Agios Nikolaos, towards the western part of the gulf.</p><br>
<p>Length: 130 km</p><br>
<p>Width: 8.4 to 32 km</p><br>
<p>Max Depth 935 m</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The gulf was created by the expansion of a tectonic rift due to the westward movement of the Anatolian Plate, and expands by 10 mm per year. The surrounding faults can produce earthquakes up to magnitude 6.8, though they are relatively uncommon.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<p>Cetaceans such as fin whales or dolphins are known to come into the Corinthian gulf occasionally.</p><br>
<h2>Gulfs and bays</h2><br>
<p>Alkyonides Gulf, east</p><br>
<p>Crissaean Gulf (Gulf of Crissa), north</p><br>
<p>Bay of Antikyra, north</p><br>
<p>Dombraina (Domvrena), north</p><br>
<p>Strait of Rio, west</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>Trizonia (the only inhabited), Alkyonides Islands (group of islets), Ambelos (islet), Fonias (islet), Prassoudi (islet)</p><br>
<h2>Bridges</h2><br>
<p>Rio-Antirio Bridge</p><br>
<h2>Cities and towns</h2><br>
<p>The cities and towns that lie next to the gulf are:</p><br>
<p>Nafpaktos (northwest)</p><br>
<p>Sergoula Beach, no port, beach</p><br>
<p>Glyfada, no port</p><br>
<p>Spilia, no port</p><br>
<p>Agios Nikolaos (north)</p><br>
<p>Galaxidi (north), small port</p><br>
<p>Itea (north), small port</p><br>
<p>Kirra (north), no port</p><br>
<p>Agios Vasileios, small port</p><br>
<p>Porto Germeno (Aigosthena), east, small port, beaches</p><br>
<p>Psatha, east, huge beach</p><br>
<p>Alepochori, (southeast)</p><br>
<p>Loutraki, no port</p><br>
<p>Corinth (southeast)</p><br>
<p>Kiato, (southeast)</p><br>
<p>Xylokastro (south)</p><br>
<p>Derveni</p><br>
<p>Krathio (southwest), no port</p><br>
<p>Diakopto (southwest), beach town</p><br>
<p>Aigio (southwest)</p><br>
<p>Patras (southeast), major port</p><br>
<p>Longos (southwest)</p><br>
<p>Selianitika (southwest)</p><br>
<p>Akoli Beach (southwest)</p><br>
<p>Kato Rodina (west southwest)</p><br>
<p>Psathopyrgos (west)</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<h3>Northern</h3><br>
<p>Mornos River</p><br>
<h3>Southern</h3><br>
<p>Volinaios River</p><br>
<p>Selemnos River</p><br>
<p>Creek E of Arachovitika and Drepano</p><br>
<p>Selinounta River</p><br>
<p>Vouraikos River</p><br>
<p>River east of Diakopto</p><br>
<p>Stygas River</p><br>
<p>Zacholitikos River</p><br>
<p>Asopus River (Corinthia)</p><br>
<p>Sythas River - Xylokastro</p><br>
<p>Dows Lake in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada is a small man-made lake on the Rideau Canal, situated two kilometres north of Hogs Back Falls in the middle of Ottawa. It is at the south end of Preston Street, just south of Carling Avenue, and just to the west of Bronson Avenue. At the south end of the lake is Carleton University, and to the west is the Dominion Arboretum, at the edge of the Central Experimental Farm.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early settlement</h3><br>
<p>The lake is named after Abram Dow, an American-born settler who came to Ontario in the early 19th Century and who owned land in this area in 1816. Before the construction of the Canal, this area was known as Dows Great Swamp. The lake was created when a dam was constructed along the north shore (Queen Elizabeth Driveway is now atop the dam) to allow flooding for the canal. Originally, the Rideau Canal was to run north from Dows Lake, but land speculation and Colonel By&#39;s reluctance to reward such speculation resulted in the current location of the canal.</p><br>
<h3>20th century developments</h3><br>
<p>In past years, the parkland to the north and east was rail yards until the 1940s and the area was mostly industrial.</p><br>
<p>Situated next to the pavilion on the western shore is Canadian Forces Reserve Barrack Dow&#39;s Lake. This installation, opened in 1943, is home to HMCS Carleton a unit of the Canadian Naval Reserve.</p><br>
<p>A rail tunnel, which was formerly owned and operated by Canadian Pacific, passes under the lake. This tunnel replaced a rail line that once crossed the lake on the surface. The OC Transpo introduced the O-Train (today&#39;s Trillium Line) in 2001, a light-rail transit system, which remains the primary user of the tunnel.</p><br>
<p>Unveiled by Princess Margriet of the Netherlands, The Man With Two Hats is a 4.6 metre sculpture by. It commemorates the role Canadian forces played in the liberation of the Netherlands, and a reproduced cast of the sculpture exists as the National Canadian Liberation Monument in Apeldoorn, Netherlands. Facing to the lake, it symbolises the historic links between Canada and the Netherlands as well as Princess Margriet&#39;s birth at the Ottawa Civic Hospital.</p><br>
<h2>Visitor activities</h2><br>
<p>In May, the surrounding park, Commissioners Park, displays tulips planted by the NCC (National Capital Commission) for the annual Canadian Tulip Festival. Over 50 varieties and approximately 300,000 tulips bloom each May along the Rideau Canal.</p><br>
<p>During the winter, Dows Lake freezes and becomes part of the worlds longest skating rink and one of the primary sites of the Winterlude festival in February, with events such as the bed races and waiter races on the ice.</p><br>
<p>Two scenic drives along the canal pass to either side of the lake. The Queen Elizabeth Driveway, named after the late Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother (who traveled along it during the 1939 royal visit) runs beside the north and west sides of the lake. The Colonel By Drive, named after the founder of the city, Lieutenant-Colonel John By, runs beside the south side of the lake.</p><br>
<p>At the north end of the lake a pavilion is situated over the water with three restaurants overlooking the water. They are Malones, Lago and Guadala Harrys. Other services of the pavilion include canoe and paddle boat rentals, boat mooring and an indoor change area for skating. It is open year-round.</p><br>
